ning “power.” It was applied especially to the high god El, father of all gods
and lord of heaven and storm.
ELAM
ELAM Iran
Aqabah Arabia . Archaeology has
Dead Sea ; from here to En-gedi fishermen will cast their nets in Ezekiel's
Galilee .
lem
Holy Place Temple
Ephesus
EPHESUS Asia ; a com-
Ephesus Asia for the worship of emperor Domitian,
Ephron Judah
EL-BERITH (אל ברית, covenant god) A god worshiped at Shechem
(Judges 9).
EL-BETHEL (אל בת־אל, the god Bethel Bethel
for God, Names of).
EL-ELOHE-ISRAEL (אלאלהי־ישראל, God, the God of Israel (See entry for
God, Names of).
EL-ELYON (אל עליון, God the Exalted One, God Most High (See entry for
God, Names of).
EL-PARAN (איל פארן, (noble or strong) tree of Paran) The southernmost
point reached by Chedorlaomer & his allies in their raid into Palestine
during which Lot was taken captive. El-Paran is probably the earlier name
for Elath—Ezion-geber.
EL SHADDAI (אל שדי, God Almighty (See entry for God, Names of and
Almighty).
ELA (אלא, terebinth) The father of Shimei, who was the commissariat officer
of Solomon in Benjamin.
ELAH (אלה, terebinth) 1. A chief of Edom; the reference in Genesis 36 and
I Chronicles 1 is probably to a place rather than to a person. 2. King of
Israel (886-885 B.C.). Elah was killed by Zimri in the revolt that ultimately
brought the Dynasty of Omri (I Kings 16). 3. The father of Hoshea, the
last of the kings of Israel (II Kings 15, 17, 18). 4. A family of the clan of
Caleb (I Chronicles 4); it may be a reference to a place rather than a per-
son. 5. A Benjaminite family dwelling in Jerusalem in postexilic times
(I Chronicles 9, not found in the parallel list in Nehemiah 11).
ELAH, VALLEY OF (עמק אלה (ay mek eh lah), valley of the terebinth) A
valley in which Saul and the Israelites camped prior to battling with the
Philistines; Israel
west southwest of Bethlehem. The passage into the valley was protected
by the Azekah fortress.
2. A Korahite in the time of David (I Chronicles 26). 3. A priest at
the dedication of the walls of Jerusalem (Nehemiah 12). 4. A descen-
dant of Benjamin (I Chronicles 8) 5. The head of a family that re-
turned with Zerubbabel. Jeshaiah of that family, returned with Ezra.
Shecaniah of that family urged Ezra to act against those who had mar-
ried foreigners. Six of its members put away foreign wives.
tory of the Zagros Mountain range. Elam is listed as one of the children
of Shem. The Elamites are mentioned among those present in Jerusalem
on the Day of Pentecost.
Ever since its earliest beginnings the history of Elam, a state
occupying the slopes of the Iranian Plateau toward the lower Tigris
Valley, has had alternating periods of invasions into that valley, resulting
in conquest of parts or all of its territory by Mesopotamian rulers. That
long history may be arranged in three major periods: earliest times to
1800 B.C.; 1800-1100 B.C.; and 1100-645 B.C.
E-28
Urban communities & settlements existed as early as 3000 B.C.
The city-state of Sumer “carried away as spoil the ‘weapon of Elam.’ ” In
their turn the Elamites may have invaded Babylonia during the “reigns” of
Lugalbanda and Dumuzi. Eannatum, king of Lagash and Kish, conducted
a successful campaign against Elam (after 2400). Sargon of Akkad
(around 2150 B.C.), conquered Elam. Ur's destruction by the Elamites and
Subarians is deplored in a lamentation text from around 1800 B.C.
In the first centuries after 1800 Elam was governed by indigenous
rulers who were considered the representatives of Inshushinak, the god
Susa. Elam installed their rulers in Larsa for some 60 years. Elam seems
to have held the position of a Babylonian province after having been con-
quered by Kurigalzu II around 1350 B.C. In a period of Elamite revival,
Shutruk-Nahhunte (1200 B.C.) returned from Babylonia with, among other
trophies, the famous law code of Hammurabi. It came to an abrupt end
around 1130, when Nebuchadnezzar I reduced Elam to a Babylonian
dependency; it remained as such for some three centuries.
Under Hubannugas, “king of Susa” (740), his grandson Shutruk-
Nahhunte II and their successors, the policy of Elam was dominated by its
alliance with Babylonia against Assyria. First, the Persians took Anshan
from Elam. Then Elam's power was destroyed by Ashurbanipal around
645. After the fall of Nineveh Elam
Median king Cyaxares. The success of Cyrus II's revolt against Astyages
brought Elam under Persian rule. Darius had to overcome several revolts
in Elam in his reign's beginning before he was able to settle down in Susa
in 521.
There are no widely accepted hypotheses as to the relationship of
Elamite with other languages. The written language was first written
in a figurative and only partially understood script, then in cuneiform,
& finally in the Elamite version of the inscriptions of the Achaemenian
kings. There is evidence that the people of the region spoke some form
of Elamite as late as the 900s A.D.
ELASAH (לעשהא , God has done it) 1. Son of Shaphan, and one of Zede-
kiah's emissaries to Nebuchadnezzar who bore Jeremiah's letter to the
exiles of Babylon
ELATH (אלות, grove of tall trees) A city situated at the head of the Gulf of
found that there was no room in the region for two cities, and has conclu-
ded that Elath was a later name for Ezion-geber.
The revolt of Edom in the time of Joram, the son of Jehoshaphat,
restored Ezion-geber (Elath) to the Edomites. About 60 years later it was
recaptured and rebuilt by Uzziah of Judah. It remained in the possession
of Judah until the time of the weak Ahaz around 735 B.C. From that time
on the city remained an Edomite possession but gradually decayed in im-
portance. It was abandoned between the 500s and 300s B.C.
ELDAAH (אלדעה, whom God calls) The last of Midian's five sons, from the
line of Abraham and Keturah.
ELDAD (אלדד, whom God loves) An Israelite who prophesied in the wilder-
ness camp. At divine command, Moses had selected 70 elders of Israel to
assist him. Eldad and Medad were similarly empowered by the spirit to
prophesy, without having been among the 70 chosen elders. Moses ex-
pressed the wish that “all Yahweh's people were prophets.” The exceptio-
nal endowment of Eldad and Medad show the independence of the spirit
in relation to the particular office. While the elders were functionally dif-
ferent from the entire community, they were not essentially different.
ELDER IN THE OLD TESTAMENT (זכן (zaw kane); שיב (seeb); שרים (sar
yeem), heads, princes) The Hebrew word seeb is derived from the root
meaning “chin” or “beard;” an elder is properly a man with a full beard.
Elders are thus the grown-up men, powerful in themselves, by reason of
personality, prowess, or stature, or influential as members of powerful
families. There were elders in ancient Greece, Rome, Arabia, Moab, and
Midian as well as Israel.
In the time before the monarchy there were sarim, who were iden-
tical with the elders. The elders wield authority in the life of the clan,
tribe, or local community. Jethro, Moses' father-in-law, counseled
Moses to spread the judicial burden among able men, who were rulers of
1,000, 100s, 50s and 10s (Exodus 18). Here the plan is of Midianite
origin & was given to Israel before they had even arrived at Mount Horeb.
E-29
The account in Deuteronomy, which describes the same event, does
not mention Jethro and takes place after leaving Mount Horeb. The princes
and officers were very similar and closely related to judges, and may have
been in part recruited from the latter. A third account in Numbers 11 is
concerned with a group of seventy from the elders of Israel, who are offi-
cers in Israel. The spirit of Yahweh is given to these men also, that they
might share with Moses in bearing the burden of Israel.
In general the elders and the officers may be said to have been lea-
ders in war, judges in dispute, and givers of wise advice and witness in
administration. They exercised a continuing role in Israel's life, & were
referred to later in Ezra's book and time. Elders are thus represented as a
constant feature of Israel's life from the days of Moses to those of Ezra,
and they were as prominent under the monarchy as before it. The elders
represent and maintain the community, and are thus the focal point of the
community.
ELDER IN THE NEW TESTAMENT (NT) (presbuteroV (pres buh teh
ros)) In the absolute sense, presbyteros means “old man,” especially one
of wisdom & experience no less than of age, the term occurs seldom in
the NT, except in a technical sense of persons holding an office or position.
The Christian office elder stems from a similar institution of Juda-
ism. The most important of these was the council of 71, the Sanhedrin, of
Jerusalem, which served as a kind of “supreme court” for all Jewry. Jewish
elders were not responsible for worship, though they enjoyed seats of
honor. The synagogue rulers were frequently elected from among their
number. It was only natural that the church would adopt a similar institu-
tion; the NT doesn't provides an account of the ordination of elders.
The elders we hear of in Acts are functioning in ways comparable
to the Jewish Sanhedrin. Paul and Barnabas ordained elders for the mis-
sion churches. In Paul's surviving letters, elders as such are never men-
tioned. It may be inferred from I Peter & James that Christian elders exer-
cised pastoral duties. Elders were closely associated with apostles in the
councils & governing of the church, but they were never confused with
apostles, for apostles were missionaries, while the latter were stationary
leaders of local churches.
On the other hand, there are those who believe that the prophets
and teachers of the church were the elders of the church. There are no
texts that make a specific link between elders & charismatic leaders.
There are a number of passages, however, that appear to make the offices
of elder & bishop synonymous. In Titus 1, there is a passage where the
qualifications for an elder and a bishop appear to overlap. Some notewor-
thy scholars theorize that the bishop's office arose out of the presbyterate
by a gradual process.
The evidence we have of a system of bishops is found mostly in I
Clement, an apocryphal letter. The letter states that arrangements were
made for the replacement of bishops. The bishops should not be removed
from their office if they have served blamelessly. The term elder does not
have a fixed meaning in I Clement. It is not clear whether it refers to sim-
ply old men, the contemporary leaders, or to those of past generations.
The theory that best fits is that only those elders who presided over the
Eucharistic assemblies were bishops.
It is first in the letters of Ignatius that the elders are clearly distin-
guished from the bishop as second after the bishop in the church's hierar-
chy. They served the bishop as a council of advice, and presided as mini-
sters at the sacraments in his absence. Too little is known to say for sure
whether the elders were the ministers of ordination. By 200 A.D., only
bishops ordained bishops and deacons. But the whole presbytery joined
in the laying on of hands at the ordination of elders. Even here, their par-
ticipation is seen as the blessing of the new elder, rather than ordination.
The authority for ordination rests solely with the bishop.
ELEAD (אלעד, God has borne witness) A family of the Ephraim tribe. The
tradition that Elead & his brother family were destroyed on a cattle raid is
either historical or a literary explanation of the Beriah clan’s name.
ELEADAH (אלעדה, God has adorned) A family of the tribe of Ephraim in
I Chronicles 7. They are not mentioned in the parallel list found in Num-
bers 26.
E-30
ELEALEH (אלעלה, God ascending) A city in Transjordan , about 3.2km north
north-east of Heshbon, rebuilt by the tribe of Reuben; it was later in
Moabite possession.
ELEASAH (אלעשה, God has made) 1. A person or family of the clan of
Jerahmeel of the tribe of Judah
descended from Saul.
ELEAZAR (אלעזר, God has helped; Eleazar) 1. The key figure through
whom tradition traced the line of priestly descent from Aaron. He was a
northern Israelite of considerable importance. As the son of Aaron, he
was invested by Moses as Aaron's successor, & he took the place of Aaron
as Moses' helper. Moses commissioned Joshua before Eleazar; Eleazar
and Joshua distributed Canaan by lot among the tribes of Israel. Eleazar
was described as “chief over the leaders of the Levites” in Moses' time.
Through Eleazar the descent of Zadok and of Ezra was traced to Aaron.
2. A son of Aginadab; consecrated to have charge of the Ark, which
was lodged in his father's house. 3. Son of Dodo; one of the “3 mighty
men” whose exploits as David's warriors gained special fame. 4. A
Levite; son of Mahli, of the Merari family. He had no sons; his daughter
were married by kinsmen.
5. A priest, son of Phinehas. He assisted in the inventory of the
temple treasure. 6. Parosh’s son, who put away a foreign wife and their
children after returning to Jerusalem from exile. 7. A Levite musician
in the procession on the walls of Jerusalem. 8. An ancestor of Joseph,
husband of Mary.
ELECT LADY (h eklekth kuria (eh eh klek teh kih ree ah)) A phrase used
in II John 1 to designate the congregation to which the elder (John) addres-
ses his letter. Blended in this phrase are the idea of the church as the
elect & the idea of the messianic community as a woman bearing children.
ELECTION (בחור (baw khoor); eklektoV (eh klek tos)) The religious convic-
tion that God has chosen one group out of a larger group, established a
unique and exclusive relationship, and imposed specific functions, obliga-
tions, or authority upon it. This term's important uses were with: kings and
priests; the fathers of Israel; and the city of Jerusalem. The first two uses
are continued in the New Testament in the election of Jesus and the 12, &
of the church as a religious community. In both Hebrew & Greek, the word
“choice” when connected with God's action became a technical term with a
specific meaning not shared by any other word.
Old Testament (OT)—None of the OT sources before Deutero-
nomy refers to Yahweh's choosing a people; yet ancient Israel’s religion
was from the first based on a unique and exclusive relationship between
Israel and Yahweh. Scholars who base their assumptions on the use of the
word bachur, see the beginnings of the concept of “choosing” no earlier
than Deuteronomy. Other scholars who base their assumption on the defi-
nition of chosen people as “a group separated from other nations in order
to have a particular relation to God, ” see this conviction from Moses on.
The usage of the verb “choose” with “Yahweh” as subject & “Israel” as
object may have developed from a conviction which previously could not
be isolated in a particular word.
There are three prevailing trends in scholarly opinion. First, there
are the old views that the religion of early Israel was nationalistic & the
“chosen people” was a relatively late expression. Second, there is the view
that the concept has its roots in the beginnings of Israel, and especially in
the religious narratives and interpretations from the time of Moses. Third
is the “two source” theory, in which the first two views existed and were
merged by the Deuteronomist.
Religious convictions frequently do not lend themselves to precise
definition in either time or place. The Deuteronomist's ideas existed or
were implied in earlier literature. But these ideas were not given specific
voice, or brought together in an official term before 623 B.C., when it was
most needed as an assurance of the value of the religious faith and the
community, and that there was a permanent relation between Yahweh and
Israel. After the destruction of Jewish social, religious, and political institu-
tions, it is no wonder that the expression “chosen people” has been a most
important \factor in the continuity of Jewish religion and culture.
E-31
There are relatively few references to the choice of human beings by
individuals from sources written before the exile. Human choices fre-
quently involve personal interests of the choosers, & reflect their character.
The choices humans make in the early part of the OT involved issues of a
religious or ethical nature, and the choice made is both an indication of
character and the ground for subsequent well-being or punishment.
For example, Yahweh refuses to deliver Israel from oppression be-
cause they have chosen other gods. Choice as a moral issue within the
community is shown in Isaiah 1 and 7, where ability to choose good and
reject evil is the description of the morally responsible person. In Deuter-
onomy 30 the two ways of life and death, and the ways of blessing and
curse, are set before the people for them to choose.
In the literature written after Deuteronomy and/or after the Exile,
almost all references to human choice are here religious alternatives be-
tween good and evil. Human choice is very frequently bound up with the
proclamation of cause-and-effect relationship. The righteous way is not
so much religious choice as it is simply a common-sense preference of
that which is advantageous. For the most part in the postexilic source,
human choice is limited to accepting or being free from an increasingly
rigid orthodoxy of actions.
Before the kings of Israel, there's no reference to a divine choice of
an individual in the OT. The tradition treats the king as the chosen of Yah-
weh and the people. David, speaking in the first person, claims to have
been chosen by Yahweh above Saul and his house. It is surprising that
Deuteronomy and later writings refer so little to chosen individuals. For
the Deuteronomist, the king 's authority is due only to the past promise of
Yahweh.
After the exile, the use of chosen individuals is expanded. The
writer of the 2nd half of Isaiah uses the terms “servant” and “chosen” inter-
changeably, & applies them often to Jacob & Israel. References to chosen
individuals almost always involve persons of the remote past, such as
Aaron, Moses, David, and Solomon. The one exception is Zerubbabel of
the exilic period, who is called both “servant” and “chosen.”
The following is a summary of the points concerning individuals
“chosen” by God. First, in the early sources of the OT, every chosen indi-
vidual occupies a definite office, first king & then priest. Second, in every
case in early OT sources the “chosen” individual is the first of a continuity
in dynastic succession. Third, in every case except Solomon, the individual
obtains his office by means other than regular, established, and accepted
conventions. And fourth, postexilic OT sources seem to attribute the term
to all great men of religious tradition, but not the charismatic leaders, such
as the judges and the prophets.
Though the religious conviction that Israel was the peculiar posses-
sion of Yahweh goes back to the very beginning of Israel, the term bachur
suddenly appears for the first time in Deuteronomy. The writer of this
book did not invent the term, but more likely fixed in writing an idea
already current in some unknown circle, where it may have been very old
indeed. If it was a term that was applied late in Israel's history to a long-
standing concept, then the question is whether it added anything new to
the theology of the OT.
The Deuteronomist was the heir of some 6 centuries of history &
tradition; early Israel was certainly a rather loose federation of “tribes” of
diverse origins, customs, and traditions. It difficult to believe the Deute-
ronomist's concept of the chosen people coincides exactly with the use
that was made of the concept if it existed in an earlier time.
If the concept of “chosen people” was known before Deuteronomy,
it was established by some historical event. The religious meaning of
God's “choosing” must be looked for within the framework of the religi-
ous bond which held early Israel together. This can only be the covenant
tradition. The choice of Israel is grounded in Yahweh's initiative, the com-
mitment that Yahweh made to the forefathers. Very strong emphasis is
here placed that the choice is determined by the nature of God, not by the
excellence of Israel. The early tradition of choosing began with the
choice of each individual or the head of each family which joined
the Israelite religious community. The early organization of Israel was too
loose to regard it as the choosing of Israel.
More important for our present purpose is the fact that Yahweh
chooses the one (or the many) whose descendants then enjoy the privi-
leges & obligations conferred upon the one who founded the line which
bears his name. It is religious conviction & ancient Israelite political theo-
logy, which establishes legitimacy and authority for the kingship and the
priesthood. After the functions of both of these institutions were destroyed,
the people continued to exist as a religious community in the absence of
king & priest. The old concept of Yahweh's choice was therefore trans-
ferred from Aaron & David back to Jacob. The term bachur gave expres-
sion to that which was a deeply felt conviction.
In the Deuteronomic history there are very few references to a
chosen people. Since the covenant obligations, which establishes Israel's
election were not followed, it was difficult to identify the historical com-
munity with the “chosen people.” The later community is only evidence
that God has kept his promise. In Jeremiah 33, there is a promise of the
restoration of David's dynasty, and of divine mercy to Jacob’s descendants.
E-32
In the writings after the Exile, it isn't Jacob as Israel, but his seed in
Egypt who seem to be the chosen. The writer of the 2nd part of Isaiah
uses the concept of election to draw the parallels of Jacob=Israel and
servant=chosen. This writer/ prophet is attempting to bridge the discre-
pancy between necessary characteristics of the chosen one & the actual
nature of the people. It must be emphasized that here it is the originator
of the line to which the term bachur originally and properly applies. The
link of the actual historical community is made by equating being chosen
with being a descendant of Abraham/Jacob.
Deuteronomy also emphasizes God's choice of a particular place
for a specific function. In the book of Deuteronomy, it is only referred to
as “place.” For the first time in I Kings 14:21, Jerusalem is specifically
mentioned; it is referred to as Mount Zion in Psalm 132. God also chooses
the “way” in which God will instruct the God-fearing man.
New Testament (NT)—In the NT, it is striking how little human
choice appears. There is Paul's difficulty in choosing between a life of
service to the early church or earthly death which means life in Christ. In
Hebrews 11, Moses chooses ill-treatment with his people rather than sin's
fleeting pleasures. In Luke 10, Mary chooses the better of 2 good alterna-
tives. The choices of humans as part of a human agency are also rare.
The NT's silence concerning human choice of religious faith is more stri-
king in view of the fact that the Christian movement must have presented
Jews & pagans alike with sharply defined alternatives.
The term sees limited use in the NT. First, Jesus himself is called
“chosen,” but the office is not defined; the Twelve are chosen and called
apostles. The term is also used by scoffers mocking Jesus on the cross.
All other references have to do with the original 12, plus Matthias. In
John 15, there is a specific denial that the 12 had chosen Jesus, and the
emphasis is placed on the function for which the 12 were chosen. Peter
states that God chose him for the specialized function of proclaiming the
gospel to the Gentiles. It is not a decision of the church, but a vision seen
by an individual. It is a strange fact that Paul is never called “chosen.”
In the teachings of Jesus, the elect are a group not closely defined;
they are perhaps similar to the “righteous remnant” of OT prophecy. The
term everywhere seems to convey a relationship to God which guarantees
God's protection. The identification of the elect in the NT went a different
way from Judaism, which specified the descendants of an individual.
What form the NT identification of the elect took has never been agreed
upon, but the elect are identified with the Christian church in some way.
Here it is necessary to point out the distinction between call and election,
as “many are called, but few are chosen.”
Deuteronomy’s insistence that election is the result of God's initia-
tive, not human initiative, is also taken up in I Corinthians 1 and James 2.
In spite of the identification of the Christians as the elect, the OT's divine
promise that Israel was the chosen people could not be ignored. But it is
impossible to regard election as something conferred by birth into an eth-
nic group, as not all of that group was willing to accept Jesus. All were
called and beloved for the sake of the ancestor, but the elect are those
who have responded in Christ.
In the NT election is an act of God, not based on any inherent supe-
riority of those elected, but grounded in the love and grace of God and in
his promises to the OT fathers. No city, place, or temple is referred to as
chosen. These symbols, which were so important to postexilic Judaism,
were evidently devalued in early Christianity. What God chose could only
be human beings, whose personal characteristics exhibited those traits
which were in harmony with the divine will. “Election” is far from being a
term expressing pride or claiming prestige and privilege; it designates
those who have responded to the call of God.
ELEMENT (ELEMENTAL SPIRIT) (stoiceia (stoy khie ah), row, rank, series)
A term which has 4 basic meanings. 1st, classical Greek relates the term
to the spoken letters of the alphabet and to the fundamental principles of
any art, science, or discipline. 2nd, the term is used to designate basic
components of the physical world (e.g. earth, fire, water, & air). 3rd, the
term is used with reference to heavenly bodies.
4th, the term came to include not only the physical elements but
also the spirits behind them. Since the world couldn't be limited to nature,
cultural, psychological and religious “elements” stood side by side with
the natural ones. The Greek mythical framework eventually included Near
Eastern half-divine beings, and angels. Stoicheia were personified and
came to be understood as the final life principles, the supporting spirits of
the elements from which human were created; they were considered wor-
thy of worship.
It is this meaning which appears in Galatians 4 & Colossians 2.
The Letter to the Galatians and to the Colossians are attacking a kind of
religious blending of Greek-influenced gnosis or “secret knowledge,”
Jewish ethical practice, and Persian mythology. In both letters it is the
question of a basically man-centered orientation versus a God-centered
one in which human problems also find their solution.
E-33
ELEPHANT (שנהבים (shen hab beem), from the root word meaning "tooth"))
Any large mammal with a long trunk. There are African and Indian ele-
phants. The African is larger; the Indian is more widely domesticated.
Indian elephants once roamed Western Asia; both Assyrians & Egyptians
refer to elephant hunts in northern Syria near Carchemish. As the cultiva-
ted area expanded & demand for ivory increased, elephants decreased
& eventually disappeared from the Assyrian domains before biblical times.
(See also the entry in the Old Testament Apocrypha / Influences Outside
the Bible section of the Appendix.).
ELEPHANTINE PAPYRI (See entry in the Old Testament Apocrypha / Influen-
ces Outside the Bible section of the Appendix.).
ELEVEN, THE (endeka (en dee ka)) A term used in the resurrection narratives
to designate the 12 disciples of Jesus minus the traitor Judas. Matthias
replaces Judas as the twelfth apostle.
ELHANAN (אלהנן, God favours) 1. A son of Jair who slew a Philistinian giant
at Gob. In II Samuel 21, Elhanan . . . slew Goliath”; in I Chronicles 20,
“Elahan slew Lahmi the brother of Goliath.” Many scholars believe that
the Philistine champion whom David slew was originally anonymous and
that a later editor interpolated the name of Goliath. 2. Son of Dod the
Bethlehemite; a member of the company of David's Mighty Men known as
the 30."
ELI (עלי (exalted)) The priest at Shiloh to whom the boy Samuel was brought
to fulfill Hannah's vow. His ancestry is given nowhere in the Old Testa-
ment. At this time the ark was kept at Shiloh, which was most likely the
central shrine of the loose Israelite tribal government. In I Samuel 2 we
have a prophecy of the fall of the house of Eli as a punishment for the sin
of Eli's sons. I Samuel 14 describes Ahitub as “Ichabod's brother, son of
Phinehas, son of Eli”; the mention of a brother's name in a genealogy is
unusual. The purpose of the verse is to connect both the Nob priesthood
& Ahijah with the house of Eli, so that it might appear that Yahweh had
rejected all the priests mentioned in this period in favor of the Zadokites.
ELI, ELI, LAMA SABACHTHANI ( אלהי אלהי למה שבקתני(e lie, e lie,
lah maw saw bak theh nee)) The Hebrew-Aramaic expression, cited in
Matthew 27 and Mark 15 as an utterance of Jesus on the cross. It was ori-
ginally from Psalm 22. There are slight differences in the spelling of the
words in the various manuscripts that exist for Mark and Matthew. The
evangelists accompany their quotation with a translation into Greek which
differs only slightly from the Greek Old Testament. The Revised Standard
Version translates both as: "My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?
Opinion is divided in regard to the original language of the saying and as to
whether Jesus himself would more naturally have used Hebrew or Aramaic.
ELIAB (אליאב, El is father) 1. A son of Helon; a leader of the tribe of Zebulun.
He represented his tribe in the time of Moses in the census and the offe-
rings for the tabernacle. 2. A Reubenite of the family of Pallu; Dathan
& Abiram’s father; they led the rebellion against Moses. 3. One of the
ancestors of the prophet Samuel; listed among the sons of Kohath (I Chro-
nicles 6).
4. Jesse the Bethlehemite’s eldest son. His appearance & height tho-
roughly impressed Samuel as befitting a king, but he was passed over in
favor of David. Eliab was in Saul's army when the Philistine giant defied
them. Eliab's daughter Abihail appears to have been the mother of Maha-
lath, the wife of Rehoboam.
5. A Levitcal musician among those who played harps in the sacred
orchestra in the time of David. 6. A Gadite warrior who joined the pro-
scribed band of David at Ziklag; he became an officer in his army.
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ELIADA (אלידע, God knows) 1. One of the sons of David who was born at
Jerusalem, also known as Beeliada. 2. Father of Rezon. 3. A com-
mander of a large force of Benjaminite bowmen in the royal military corp
during Jehoshaphat's reign.
ELIAHBA (אליהבא, God hides) A Shaalbonite or Shaalabbinnite and one of
David's Thirty Mighty Men.
ELIAKIM (אליקים, God establishes him) 1. Son of Hilkiah, and royal cham-
berlain to Hezekiah. Since Solomon's time this office had increased in
importance to become second only to the king in power. 2. The second
son of Josiah; his name was changed to Jehoiakim by Pharaoh Neco, who
made him a puppet king. The Pharaoh had, in a sense made Jehoiakim a
new person complete with a new name 3. A priest at the dedication of
the wall of Jerusalem after it had been rebuilt under Zerubbabel. 4. Son
of Abiud, named in the postexilic division of the genealogy of Jesus.
5. Son of Melea, in Luke's genealogy of Jesus.
ELIAM (אליעם, God's people) 1. The father of Bathsheba, also known as
Ammiel in I Chronicles 3. 2. Son of Ahithophel the Gilonite; one of
the Mighty Men of David known as the "Thirty."
ELIASAPH (ליסףא, God has added) 1. He was one of Israel’s 12 tribal lea-
ders who assisted Moses in a census. 2. Leader of the Gershonites in
the wilderness; son of Lael. Gershonites took care of the tabernacle.
ELIASHIB (אלישיב, God will restore) 1. A priest of the time of David (I
Chronicles 24). 2. High priest in the time of Nehemiah. He directed
the priests in the rebuilding of the Sheep Gate in the city wall, and was
subsequently guilty of defiling the temple by assigning space in it to
Tobiah, the “Ammonite” opponent of Nehemiah. 3. A postexilic singer
among those who married foreign women (Ezra 10). 4. A layman; son
of Zattu (Ezra 10). 5. A layman; son of Bani (Ezra 10). 6. A descen-
dant of Zerubbabel and David (I Chronicles 3).
ELIATHAH (אליאתה, to whom God comes) A temple musician, son of
Heman. Perhaps it is not a proper name, but part of a prayer that has been
included in this list of musicians. If the word is divided into two words, it
becomes “Thou art my God.”
ELIDAD (אלידד, God has loved) A Benjaminite, son of Chislon. He was one
of those appointed under Eleazar and Joshua, to superintend the distribu-
tion of the Western Jordanian territory among the ten tribes.
ELIEHOENAI (אליהועיני, my eyes are towards Yahu) 1. A gatekeeper
of the Levitical family of Korah. 2. Head of a family who returned to
Jerusalem with Ezra.
ELIEL (אליאל, God is his strength) 1. A chief or family of that part of the
tribe of Manasseh which dwelt east of the Jordan (I Chronicles 5).
2. A Kohathite; one of the Levitical singers in the temple (I Chronicles 6).
3. 2 chiefs or families of the Benjamin tribe (I Chronicles 8) that aren’t
found in Genesis or Numbers list. 4. Three (?) heroes among those in
David's service (I Chronicles 11, 12).
5. A Levite of Hebron mentioned in connection with the bringing
of the ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem. (I Chronicles 15). 6. A Levite
purportedly of the time of King Hezekiah (II Chronicles 31).
ELIENAI (אליעיני, my eyes are towards the Lord) A family of the tribe of Ben-
jamin (I Chronicles 8).
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ELIEZER (אליעזר, my God is my help) 1. The servant of Abraham who, in
lieu of a son, would have been Abraham's heir (Genesis 15 & 24). It is
presumably Eliezer who is went to find a wife for Isaac. 2. Moses'
second son (Exodus 18; I Chronicles 23). 3. A person or family in a
list wrongly assigned to Benjamin, actually of Zebulun (I Chronicles 7).
4. A priest mentioned in connection with the bringing of the ark of the
covenant to Jerusalem.
5. A chief of the Reubenites (I Chronicles 27). 6. A prophet in
the time of Jehoshaphat (II Chronicles 20). 7. A leader in the time of
Ezra (Ezra 8). 8. A priest who put away his foreign wife (Ezra 10)
9. A Levite who put away his foreign wife (Ezrz 10). 10. A member of
the clan of Harim who put away his foreign wife (Ezra 10). 11. A name
in the Lukan genealogy of Jesus (Luke 3) .
ELIHOREPH (אליהרף, God is his reward) Son of Shisha; he was royal
secretary in the Solomonic court along with his brother Ahijah
(I Kings 4).
ELIHU (אליהו, The Lord is my God) 1. An ancestor of Samuel (I Samuel 1),
also known as Eliel and Eliab. 2. A chief of the tribe of Manasseh who
deserted Saul to join David at Ziklag (I Chronicles 12). 3. A Korahite
gatekeeper (I Chronicles 26). 4. One of David's brothers, called Eliab
in the primary Greek Old Testament (I Chronicles 27). 5. The young
man who speaks to Job when the 3 friends have failed to silence him. He
is more closely connected to the Hebrews than the first 3, and serves to
raise the discussion to a more theological level before God speaks
(Job 32-36).
ELIJAH (אליה, The Lord is God) 1. See Elijah the Prophet entry.
2. A descendant or patriarch of Benjamin; a son of Jeroham. He was the
head of a clan (I Chronicles 8). He lived in Jerusalem. 3. A priest who
returned from the Exile in Ezra's time and pledged to give up his foreign
wife (Ezra 10). 4. A layman of Ezra's time, son of Elam, who divorced
his foreign wife (Ezra 10).
ELIJAH THE PROPHET. A prophet of the 800s B.C. from Tishbe of Gilead in
the Northern Kingdom; the master of Elisha. Elijah's zealous loyalty to the
Lord predestined him to take leadership in the struggle against the encroa-
ching forces of the Tyrian Baalism fostered by Jezebel, wife of King Ahab
(I Kings 17-19, 21; II Kings 1 & 2).
The miracle thread repeatedly appears in the Elijah legends. During
the drought, the prophet hid himself by the Brook of Cherith and was fed
by ravens. In Zarephath he stayed with a widow and her son. Their food
was provided by the jar of meal and oil cruse which remained miraculously
unspent during the whole drought. The widow's son died & Elijah revived
the child. Elijah was transported miraculously by the Lord's Spirit.
Fire descends from the sky and consumes the burnt offering on
Mount Carmel. Finally there is the miraculous feeding of Elijah by an
angel. None of these overshadow the central question of the encounter of
the divine word & the prophet, namely the issue of Baalism vs. Yahwism.
The narrative of Elijah's translation to heaven dovetails with the
Elisha legends, and serves to support the legitimate, prophetic succession
of Elisha. When they reached the Jordan, Elijah struck the water of the
Jordan with his mantle; the water parted, and together Elijah and Elisha
crossed the Jordan. Elisha asked for and apparently received two-thirds
of Elijah's spirit as his share as the firstborn. Suddenly, “Elijah went up
by a whirlwind into heaven.” in a chariot of fire.
During the reign of the politically able Ahab, Yahwism's very exis-
tence was endangered. Ahab's wife, Jezebel, daughter of the king of Tyre,
brought the worship of the Tyrian Baal, erected a temple for the deity, and
supported a huge college of Baal and Asherah prophets. Judging from the
names of his children, Ahab worshipped both Yahweh and Baal. But com-
promise, false tolerance, and the blending of Yahwism with Baalism were
incompatible with the Lord's claim for exclusive allegiance.
Elijah went to Ahab to announce the end of the drought. He was
addressed by the king as “troubler of Israel.” Elijah confronted him with
his apostasy, and challenged the prophets of Baal to a contest. All Israel
witnessed the contest. Elijah stood alone against the 450 Baal prophets.
The sacrificial animals were to be placed upon the unkindled wood on the
altars—one for Baal, another for the Lord—and the prophets of Baal and
Elijah were to ask for fire from the deity.
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From morning until noon, the Baal prophets whirled around the
altar in a grotesque, limping dance, and finally cut themselves with lances
and swords; but all these attempts were in vain. In contrast, Elijah ap-
proached God with quiet dignity. Water was poured on Elijah's sacrificial
animal, probably as a rain-making device. After this, Elijah quietly prayed,
& the fire of the Lord fell & consumed the burnt offering. The people con-
fessed that the Lord was God, &, upon Elijah's command, massacred the
prophets of Baal. The final scene of the contest of Mount Carmel is the
coming of rain after the long drought.
Shortly thereafter he fled from Jezebel's vengeance. On Mount
Horeb Elijah beheld the power of wind, earthquake, & fire, which belong
to the usual pattern of God showing God's self; but the Lord didn't appear
after these events. Then a voice (a “still small voice” in the King James
version) commanded Elijah to anoint Hazael as king of Syria, Jehu as
king of Israel, and Elisha as Elijah's successor.
The claim of Yahweh-worship to the exclusion of other gods reap-
pears in Elijah's condemnation of King Ahaziah, son of Ahab, who con-
sulted the oracle of Baal-zebub. So, Elijah courageously stood up against
King Ahab for his mixing of the Lord’s worship with the worship of
foreign deities, and for his acquiring the vineyard of Naboth under false
pretenses & causing Naboth's death in the process. He condemned Aha-
ziah for the same worship practices.
Elijah's memory was piously preserved in the prophetic guilds
which claimed a spiritual kinship with Elijah. But Elijah made a profound
impression on the imagination of the people of Israel. Later ages expected
his return as the forerunner of the coming Day of the Lord. In the New
Testament, the same role as forerunner is attributed to Elijah; some
thought Jesus was Elijah. In the early church, John the Baptist was regar-
ded as either an heir to the spirit and power of Elijah, or as Elijah brought
back to life. At the transfiguration of Jesus, Elijah appears together with
Moses.
ELIKA (אליקא, God's congregation) A Harodite whose name appears in the
Davidic list of Thirty Mighty Men.
ELIM (ילםא, large trees) The fourth stopping place after the Israelites crossed
the Red Sea, and the first place where they found fresh water. This site is
most likely about 100km east of Suez on the Sinai Peninsula.
ELIMELECH (אלימלך, God is king) A Bethlehemite who, with his wife,
Naomi, and his 2 sons, migrated to Moab in the days of the judges escape
the famine in Israel. After he died, Naomi and Ruth, his daughter-in-law,
returned to Bethlehem.
ELIOENAI (אליועני, my eyes are towards my God) 1. A post-exilic descen-
dant of David (I Chronicles 3). 2. A chief of the tribe of Simeon (I Chro-
nicles 4). 3. Listed as a Benjaminite family in what is actually a list of
Zebulun families (I Chronicles 7). 4. A priest of the sons of Pashhur who
put away his foreign wife (Ezra 10). 5. A son of Zattu who put away his
foreign wife (Ezra 10). 6. A postexilic priest (Nehemiah 12)
ELIPHAL (אליפל, whom God judges) A member of the Mighty Men of David,
known as the Thirty (I Chronicles 11). Scholars believe he is the same as
Eliphelet in II Samuel 23, and that the Chronicler was concealing his origin
and the true name of his father.
ELIPHAZ (אליפז, God is strength or precious) 1. The eldest son of Esau and
his Hittite wife Adah; husband of a Horite concubine Timna (Genesis 36;
I Chronicles 1); the ancestor of several Edomite clan chiefs. 2. The first
& oldest of Job's 3 friends; he is very dogmatic & holds a merely moralistic
view of salvation. He told Job not to despise God or his religion, charged
him with numerous sins &, assuming that Job must have done something
wrong to merit such treatment, concluded with an appeal for conversion.
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ELIPHELEHU (אליפלהו, whom God distinguishes) A Levite of the second
rank appointed by David to be one of the “leaders with lyres.” (I Chronicles
15). His name is left out of a similar list in I Chronicles 16.
ELIPHELET (אליפלט, God is deliverance) 1. A son of David (II Samuel 5;
I Chronicles 3 & 14). 2. One of David's Mighty Men (II Samuel 23),
also known as Eliphal in I Chronicles 11. 3. A Benjaminite, descendant
of Saul and Jonathan (I Chronicles 8). 4. One of those who returned
from exile with Ezra (Ezra 8). 5. One of those who put away their foreign
wives (Ezra 10).
ELISHA (אלישע, God is salvation) An 800s B.C. prophet of the Northern
Kingdom (Israel); the disciple and successor of Elijah. Most of the first 13
chapters of II Kings are about him.
Elisha, son of Shaphat was a peasant from Abel-Meholah, but that
he was rich is indicated by the 12 yoke of oxen he was plowing with when
Elijah called him into his service in accordance with a divine command.
Although the command in one part of the tradition was to anoint Elisha,
another thread of tradition reports that Elijah cast his mantle upon Elisha.
This act represented a transfer of the prophetic power to Elisha.
The beginning of Elisha's ministry coincides with the last years of
Ahab's reign according to I Kings 19, or the first years of Joram's reign ac-
cording to II Kings 2. His ministry lasted over 50 years, approximately
from 850-800 B.C. He took Elijah's mantle, invoked the Lord’s name, and
as his first act struck the water of the Jordan, which parted before him.
Many of the miracle narratives are connected with the prophetic
guilds, who recognized him as their leader and the successor to Elijah.
Elisha healed the spring of Jericho by throwing salt from a new bowl into
the spring. By the miracle of the unspent jar of oil, he helped the widow
of one of the sons of the prophets when a creditor wanted to take her two
children as slaves. He revived a child who had died from sunstroke.
Another time, he fed a hundred men with twenty loaves of barley
and some fresh ears of grain. He healed Naaman, the commander of the
Syrian army, who was afflicted with leprosy. Not even death could stop
the prophet’s miracles, for when a dead man was put into the Elisha’s
grave, he was revived by the touch of the prophet’s bones. The prophet
appears in these narratives in a more than human role; he towers over the
anonymous members of the prophetic guilds. The storyteller’s aim was to
enhance the fame of the prophet.
In the miracle narratives the historical person Elisha is hard to find.
Some of these stories are overloaded with legendary elements. In others,
the historical elements are dominant, as in the story of Elisha's oracle.
The historical fact which emerges out of these miracles is that Elisha was
the beloved leader of the prophetic guild; his human greatness, piety, &
willingness to help were lovingly remembered in the prophetic guilds.
Elisha's portrait as an actor on the scene of history is most markedly
drawn in the happenings whereby he fulfills the legacy of his master Elijah.
Elisha understood that his task was to direct the route of history. He
represents, in its initial state, the prophetic attitude which claimed the right
to mold the nation's fate by proclaiming the Lord's will.
ELISHAH (אלישה) The name of a person and place. The person is one of
the descendants of Japheth, and the place is a coastal area exporting
purple and blue dye to Tyre. Scholars believe that another name, Elishah-
Alashia, refers to some part of Cyprus whence copper and other raw mate-
rial were exported.
ELISHAMA (אלישמע, God has heard) 1. The leader of the tribe of Ephraim
at the census in the wilderness. 2. One of David's sons (II Samuel 5).
3. A member of the royal family of Judah (II KIngs 25; Jeremiah 41).
4. Part of the tribe of Judah; descended from Sheshan Jerahmeelite (I
Chronicles 2). 5. A priest, purportedly of the time of King Jehosha-
phat (II Chronicles 17). 6. A scribe at the court of Jehoiakim
(Jeremiah 36).
ELISHAPHAT (אלישפט, God has judged) One of the Judean commanders
who aided Jehoiada the priest in securing the kingship for Joash against
Athaliah (II Chronicles 23).
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ELISHEBA (אלישבע, God is her oath) The daughter of Amminadab, and the
wife of Aaron, to whom she bore four sons. The Hebrew name commonly
occurs in inscriptions from the first two centuries A.D.
ELISHUA (אלישוע, God is salvation) One of David's sons who were born at
Jerusalem (II Samuel 5).
ELIZABETH (Elisabet, same as Elisheba, God is her oath (promise)) The
wife of the priest Zechariah, and the mother of John the Baptist. Elizabeth
was of priestly descent. From the standpoint of law & customs, which re-
quired priests to marry virgins of Israelitish birth, her marriage to the priest
Zechariah would have been considered ideal. Husband & wife both pos-
sessed faultless characters. In them the highest form of Old Testament
piety was embodied. There was the problem of her barrenness which was
overcome in her old age. Through her a child of great promise was brought
into the world.
Elizabeth is called by Luke a kinswoman of Mary, the mother of
Jesus. It is possible that Mary had priestly blood in her. There is evidence
that the Magnificat (Luke 1:46-55) in the original text of Luke may have
been ascribed to Elizabeth rather than Mary.
ELIZAPHAN (אליצפן, whom God protects) 1. A Kohathite Levite, son of
Uzziel. He was the head of the Kohathites in wilderness. 2. Son of
Parosh; chosen from Zebulun as one of the ten tribal leaders who, with
Eleazar and Joshua were to divide the land of Canaan.
ELIZUR (אליצור, God is a rock) Leader of Reuben; son of Shedeur, & one
of the twelve who assisted Moses in taking a census of Israel.
ELKANAH (אלקנה, whom God created) 1. A person or subdivision of the
Levitical family of Korah. Elkanah was apparently a much-used name
among the Levites.
2. The father of Samuel. The Chronicler may have made an
honest mistake in making him a Levite, rather than an Ephraimite as in
I Samuel; it is most likely that he made the change out of a Levite bias.
3. Benjamite warrior who deserted Saul to join David at Ziklag.
4. An official of the court of Ahaz; his assassination appears in the
Chroniclers account of Ahaz's reign.
5-7. Three names in a list of Levites (I Chronicles 6 & 9; see
also Priests and Levites entry). 8. A Levitical gatekeeper of the Ark
of the Covenant (I Chroniclers 15; see also Priests and Levites).
ELKOSH (האלקשי, the Elkoshite) The residence of the prophet Nahum. The
most likely tradition places this site in southern Judea. Early Christian
tradition places it in Galilee, which is unlikely as Nahum was composed
100 years after the fall of the Northern Kingdom of Israel. A tradition
which occurred no earlier than the 1500s A.D. places the site in Assyria;
it is not supported by biblical evidence.
ELLASAR (אלסר) A country the king of which, Arioch, is mentioned in Gene-
sis 14. Neither country nor king has been convincingly identified with
known countries or persons from ancient history.
ELM (אלם, the King James Version translates it as elm, which is not a Palesti-
nian tree; the Revised Standard Version translates it as terebinth.) See
Terebinth entry.
ELMADAM ( 'Elmadam) An ancestor of Jesus.
ELNAAM (אלנעם, God is his delight) The father of Jeribai and Joshaviah,
who are among the sixteen names added by the Chronicler to the list
of the “Thirty” as represented in II Samuel 23.
ELNATHAN (אלנתן, God has given) 1. A Jerusalemite, father of Nehush-
ta, the mother of Jehoiachin. He was among the princes who took part
in the episode of Baruch's reading of Jeremiah's scroll. 2. Two
“chiefs” and a “man of insight” known by this name among those re-
turning from Exile (Ezra 8).
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ELOAH (אלוה) A name for God found especially in the book of Job. (See also
God, Names of).
ELOHIM (אלהים) The general term for “gods” or, when used in the majestic
plural for “God” or “deity.” (See also God, names of).
ELOHIST The anonymous author or compiler of 1 of 4 principal narrative sour-
ces of the 1st 5 books of the Old Testament. He is commonly associated
with the Northern kingdom of Israel in the 700s B.C. This source is often
found in combination with the Jahwist source, so much so that it is often
impossible to separate the combined Jahwist-Elohist material.
ELON (אלון, oak) 1. A son of Zebulun, probably representing one who esta-
blished & gave his name to a tribe. 2. A Hittite, the father of one of the
wives of Esau. 3. The name may be a way of explaining the origin
of the name of the town Aijalon. Both are spelled with the same Hebrew
letters. 4. A village of Dan near Timnah.
ELON-BETH-HANAN (אילון בית חנן, oak of the house of Hanan) A village
of Dan in Solomon's second administrative district.
ELPAAL (אלפעל, God of recompense) A Benjaminite clan or family.
ELTEKEH (אלתקה, meeting place, God of worship) A Danite town in nor-
thern Israel that was assigned to the Levites; later it passed into Philistine
hands, along with Timnah. In 701 B.C. a great battle was fought at El-
tekeh between Sennacherib and the Egyptian-Ethopian army. The victo-
rious Sennacherib captured Eltekeh &Timnah, slew the rebellious leaders
and then invaded Judah.
ELTEKON (אלתקון, God is its establishment) A village of Judah in the hill-
country district of Beth-zur, probably 3.2 km south of Hausan and about
6.4 km west of Bethlehem.
ELTOLAD (אלתולד, God of posterity) A city of Simeon in the south of Judah
near Ezem and Hormah. Judging from the name, it was a shrine to which
women would come to pray for children. Its site is unknown.
ELUL (אלול, vanity; Eloul) The Hebrew form of the Akkadian name for the
sixth month of the year (August-September; see also Calendar).
ELUZAI (אלעוזי, God is my strength or praise) One of the disaffected Benja-
minite warriors of the house of Saul who joined the outlaw band of David
at Ziklag (I Chronicles 12).
ELYMAS (ElumaV) A Jewish magician and false prophet associated with Pro-
consul Sergius Paulus on Cyprus. He challenged Paul and Barnabas and
was temporarily stricken blind (Acts 13). He was also known as Bar-
Jesus. Verse 8 probably intends to bring together the names Bar-Jesus &
Elymas as equivalent names. But there is no evidence that the Greek
“Elymas” is a translation of the Aramaic “Bar-Jesus.”
Some scholars try to explain the parenthesis following “magician”
as explaining the meaning of Elymas, which they believe is an Aramaic
word spelled with Greek letters. Others apply the parenthesis to “Bar-
Jesus.” It is most likely that the parenthesis says only that the Greek
name of the Jew Bar-Jesus is Elymas.
Numerous Jews evidently became magicians by profession. Acts
presents them only in opposition to Christians, so in an unfavorable light.
They were actually men of recognized cultural attainments. Their profes-
sion was probably both a science and a faith.
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ELYON (עליון, the Most High) An ancient divine name associated with the El
of pre-Israelite Jerusalem. (See also God, names of).
ELZABAD (אלזבד, God has given) 1. A Gadite warrior who joined David at
Ziklag (I Chronicles 12). 2. A Korahite gatekeeper (I Chronicles 26).
EMBALMING (חנטים (khaw nat eem)) The art of preserving dead bodies
from decay, which has its origins in Egypt, was not practiced among the
Hebrews. The only direct references in scripture to embalming are Gene-
sis 50, where it is stated that Jacob and Joseph were embalmed. This
shows both their prominence and how they were preserved until they
could be buried in Canaan.
The Hebrew term for “embalming” appears only in the passages in
Genesis and in the Song of Songs [Solomon], where it is best translated
as “ripens.” The description of the embalming of Israel indicates that the
process required 40 days, as opposed to the Egyptian standard of 70 days.
The fact that the Hebrews did not practice embalming is doubtless to be
explained by their theological beliefs, their antipathy towards Egyptians,
and the comparative poverty of Palestine.
EMBASSY Used in Luke 14, it is an abstract form ambassador; either one or
more ambassadors.
EMBROIDERY AND NEEDLEWORK (רקם (raw kam)) Inter-weaving of
varied colors, into a specific pattern. Materials for the tabernacle &
the girdle for Aaron & sons were embroidered work. Oholiab, a Danite,
was said to have been especially adept as an embroiderer in blue and pur-
ple and scarlet stuff.
It is used figuratively of Jerusalem in the early days when the Lord
clothed her with embroidered cloth. The high priest was to wear a “coat
of checkered work.” This type of work was produced by cutting the gar-
ment from two different colors of material, to make an inner and outer
portion of the garment, which were then sewed together in accordance
with the desired pattern so as to produce a sparkling, gemlike effect.
The work referred to by the Hebrew terms is sometimes more of the
designer type than of the embroiderer type.
EMEK-KEZIZ (עמק קציץ, a valley cut off (dried up)) One of the cities of
Benjamin, apparently related to a valley of like name near the southeas-
tern boundary of the tribe's territory. It is near Jericho & Beth-hoglah.
The exact location is unknown.
EMERALD (ברקת (baw rek ath); נפך (no phek); SmaragdinoV
(sma rag dih nos)) A variety of beryl of rich green color. Many tones
called “emerald” in Egyptian jewelry were really green feldspar.
The Hebrew word Barekat is one of the stones on the covering
of the King of Tyre (Ezekiel 28)
The Hebrew word Nophek is a stone in the breast-piece of judg-
ment (Exodus 28 & 39).
The Greek word smaragdinos is used in the description of the one
seated on the throne in Revelation 4.
EMERODS (טחרים (te khor eem), boil, ulcer, hemorrhoids; עפלים (o fel
eem), tumor) The King James Version translation of the above Hebrew
words; it is an archaic form of “hemorrhoids.”
EMIM (אמים, terror, dread) Ancient, presumably gigantic inhabitants of
Transjordan (Genesis 14).
EMMAUS ('EmmaouV) A Judean town now of uncertain identification,
which was the destination of 2 travelers to whom Jesus appeared after
his crucifixion (Luke 24).
The name appears only once in the Bible. Jesus encountered
Cleopas and a companion on the road to Emmaus. The only clue given
by Luke is that it was 12 km from Jerusalem. There are no fewer than
four modern towns proposed as being the New Testament Emmaus.
a.) El-Qubeibeh is 11.2 km west of Jerusalem, but on a more nor-
therly Roman road; it is an old tradition.
b.) Qaloniveh is over 6 km west of Jerusalem on the main road to
Jaffa.
c.) Abu Ghosh is about 14.4 km west of Jerusalem on the main
road to Jaffa.
d.) Amwas is 32 km west of Jerusalem on the main road to Jaffa.
It comes closest to preserving the ancient name of “Emmaus.” The
principal objection to its being the New Testament Emmaus is the dis-
tance of “160 stadia” or 32 km from Jerusalem, rather than “60 stadia.”
Some good manuscripts read “160” rather than “60,” But the best text
is the traditional “60.”
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EMPEROR (basileuV (bah sil ay us)) Ruler of the Roman Empire . It originally
was a title of honor, derived from imperator. Julius Caesar used the
title permanently; later rulers followed his example. In later times, when
an army hailed a general as imperator he was recognized as that
army's candidate for imperial office. In theory the emperor ruled as prin-
ceps, “chief of state.” The older usage was continued, however; after
military victories the emperor was hailed as imperator.
EMPEROR-WORSHIP (See also the entry in the Old Testament Apocrypha /
Influence Outside the Bible section of the Appendix. Reverence paid to a
Roman emperor, living or dead, as a divine being. Godhood was unofficial
until voted on by the Senate after the ruler's death.
In the first 2 centuries those emperors who believed that they them-
selves were divine were all murdered or had to commit suicide. The good
emperors, in the eyes of the Senate & of history, were those who rejected
the adulation of courtiers or of the populace.
Tiberius was Augustus’ successor and insisted upon divine honors
for Augustus but refused them for himself, except in the East. Caligula
asked the Senate to deify Tiberius, but they denied it, because of the
strained relations between the Senate and Tiberius in his last years. After
Caligula was murdered, only the intervention of Emperor Claudius pre-
vented the Senate from declaring him an enemy of the state. Claudius
wrote an official letter in 41 A.D., refusing any worship of him in Alexan-
dria. When the letter was published, the Egyptian prefect issued an edict
which included the letter and the comment: “It speaks of the greatness of
our God Caesar.” In Britain a Divine Claudius temple was actually erec-
ted, after a Roman victory there.
Nero had Claudius deified, presumably in order to provide proof of
his own rather dubious filial piety. He himself was condemned by the
Senate before his death & was never consecrated. His successor, Vespa-
sian, refused divine honors, though he erected a temple to the Divine Clau-
dius. Vespasian & Titus were consecrated by their successors. In 89 A.D.,
the emperor Domitian was addressed by his courtiers as Master and God.
After his death, however, he was declared an enemy of the state. Trajan
(98-117 ) had his predecessor Nerva consecrated. In Bithynia and Pontus,
Christians were required to offer incense and wine before statues of the
gods & of the emperor; the emperor himself didn't approve of this practice.
With the exceptions discussed above, the official Roman view recog-
nized the difference between the gods & the living emperor. On the other
hand, outside Rome worship of living emperors, theoretically spontaneous,
was never discouraged by local authorities. Those who rejected it were
likely to be suspected of disloyalty, even though in theory it could not be
required. Christians repeatedly stated that while they could & did, pray for
the emperor, they could not possibly pray to him.
EMPTIED (Ekenwsen (ek en os en)) In Phillipians 2, Paul says that Jesus was
“in the form of God . . . but emptied himself, taking the form of a servant.”
There are three major interpretations of this “emptying”: a.) Christ emptied
himself of the God’s outer form and took on a human form; he appeared in
disguise was not really human.
b.) Christ emptied himself of his divine attributes and what was left
of him was born as a man; not all of the divine in him was given up.
c.) Paul said, not that Christ Jesus emptied himself of anything, but
that he emptied himself; Christ emptied himself of, or poured out, his life,
not of some of its characteristics or of its outer form.
EN-DOR (עין דאר, spring of dor) A city in Manasseh where a medium con-
sulted by King Saul of Israel, located most likely 6.4 miles from Mount
Tabor.
In Psalm 83 it is mentioned as the place where Sisera & Jabin were
destroyed; the book of Judges makes no mention of En-dor in its version
of the story. It is possible that the psalmist knew of En-dor & its nearness
to Mount Tabor & merely indicated the general locality of their destruction.
EN-EGLAIM (עין עגלים, spring of two calves) A place on the shores of the
vision. The most likely location is 2.4 km south of Khirbet Qumran.
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EN-GANNIM (עין גנים, spring of gardens) 1. A town in Judah
km south of Beth-Shemesh. 2. A town in Issachar, assigned to the Ger-
shonites as a Levitical city. It is possibly the same as the modern city of
Jenin, although the city of Olam fits the limits of Issachar's territory better.
EN-GEDI (עין גדי, spring of the kid) A important oasis at about the middle of
the Dead Sea's western side, about 56 km southeast of Jerusalem
fed by a hot-water spring from about 90 to 120 meters above the base of a
cliff. The depression of the Dead Sea made it possible for the oasis to pro-
duce semi-tropical vegetation & to become noted for its palms, vineyards,
and balsam.
En-gedi was occupied by Amorites who were subjugated by Che-
dorlaomer and his allies in Abraham's day. Later the village was assigned
to the wilderness district of Judah. David sought refuge from Saul in the
rugged terrain around En-gedi, & it was near there that he showed mercy
to Saul when Saul was there.
EN-HADDAH (עין חדה, swift fountain) A town of Issachar
of Mount Tabor
EN-HAKKORE (עין הקורא, spring of the partridge or caller) A spring at
Lehi, from which Samson drank.
EN-HAZOR (עין חצור, fountain of the court or village) A fortified town in
the territory of Naphtali
EN-MISHPAT (See Kadesh)
EN-RIMMON (עין רמון, spring of the pomegranate) A city assigned to Si-
meon and later to Judah
14.4 km north-northeast of Beer-sheba. Exile returnees resettled here.
EN-ROGEL (עין רגל, spring of the fuller (cloth-maker)) A spring near Jerusa-
the east bank of the Kidron, just southeast of Jerusalem
limit between the tribes of Benjamin &Judah. When David had to flee
from Jerusalem in the days of Absalom's rebellion, two of his men re-
mained near En-rogel to gather intelligence.
The well is sunk deep into the rock and reaches an underground
stream of water which gushes to the surface and flows down the valley
after abundant winter rainfalls. The stone masonry around the upper
parts of the well date back perhaps to Roman times; it was added to as
the valley filled in.
EN-SHEMESH (עין שמש, spring of the sun) A place on the boundary be-
tween Benjamin and Judah, about 3.4 km east of Jerusalem and just
east of Bethany; it is the last spring between Jerusalem and the Jordan
valley.
EN-TAPPUAH (עין תפוח, spring of Tappuah) A place of uncertain location
at the southern border of Manasseh; it is probably to be associated
with the Ephraimite city of the same name, just southwest of Shechem.
ENAIM (עיןים, two springs) A place between Adullam and Timnah, possibly
the same as Enam. Its present location is unknown.
ENAM (עינם, fountains) A village of Judah
Azekah.
ENAN (עינן, little (?) fountain) The father of Ahira, who was the leader of
Naphtali in the wilderness.
ENCHANTER, ENCHANTMENTS (אשף (ash shawf); קבר, (khe ber);
נחש, (nakh ash); ענן, (aw nan)) A sorcerer who employs spells
charms, or omens in his occult practice. The practice of the enchanter,
like any other form of magic, was forbidden by Biblical law.
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END, THE (to teloV) A term used in the general sense, but especially to de-
signate the end of the present age.
ENDURANCE (upomonh (oo pom on ay), patient endurance, patience) The
translation of the Greek word in: Luke 21; Romans 5; I Corinthians 6;
Colossians 1; Hebrews 10; Revelation 1, 2, 3, 13, and 14. The King
James Version uses “patience” in all these passages. Elsewhere the
Revised Standard translates the Greek word by: patience; steadfast-
ness; and perseverance.
ENEMY (איב (oh yabe); צר (tsawr); שנא (saw nay); שטן (saw tawn), ad-
versary, Satan; ecqroV (ekh thros); antidikoV (an ti dee kos),
adversary, Satan ) One who dislikes or hates another and seeks to do
him harm.
In the Old Testament (OT), “enemy” refers most often to the na-
tional enemies of Israel; it could mean one's personal enemies. In the
New Testament, “enemy” refers to personal enemies.
God is often spoken of in the OT as an enemy. God is an enemy to
Israel's enemies. This was the view of God in early traditions, where God
was a warrior championing God’s people's welfare. The prophets spoke
also of God abandoning God’s people to their enemies. They thus could
call God in God’s judgments Israel's enemy, but God's love was still the
dominant factor.
Humans are God's enemy or, literally, hate God when they disobey
divine commandments. The devil is the enemy par excellence. The con-
trast drawn in the Sermon on the Mount between hating one's enemies &
loving one's enemies is wrongly interpreted as a difference between OT &
New Testament (NT) personal ethics. It is true that only the NT has the
categorical imperative that one should love one's enemies, but the OT
commands conduct which supports this imperative. There is no categorical
commandment in the OT to love one's enemies, there is certainly none to
hate one's enemies. Paul does spell out the meaning of love of one's
enemy and to make his point quotes from Proverbs 25.
ENGINE (חשבון (khesh bone), device) A skillful mechanical device for using
energy to do work, in this instance for military purposes.
Engines of war seem to have been developed in Western Asia first
by the Assyrians. Large catapults for hurling stones, arrows, etc. appeared
rather late in the Greek world. Such artillery was used by Alexander the
Great, & later became standard equipment of most Greek armies, and ar-
mies following Greek customs. Later, these engines of war were used by
the Roman legions (See also Battering Rams, and Weapons of War).
In II Chronicles 26, Uzziah of Judah sets up engines to shoot arrow
& great stones from the walls of Jerusalem. While this can't be disproved,
it is a fact that elsewhere in the surrounding area catapults and the like did
not come into general use until considerably later than Uzziah's age.
ENGRAVING (פתוח (pit too akh)) Forms of ancient engraving include: Gems
cut and inscribed; ivory carving and inlaying (many have been found by
Palestinian archaeology; metal; seals & scarabs; wood carving, as on the
“graving tool” was one of a variety developed by the Akkadians. The jewe-
ler's wheel was widely used around 1500 B.C.
ENLIL (lord of the wind) The chief god of Nippur
atmosphere; he overcame the chaotic waters and established Cosmos.
ENOCH (חנוך, initiated) 1. Cain’s son, & Irad’s father (Genesis 14).
2. Son of Jared in Sethite genealogy; father of Methuselah (Genesis 5).
3. A city built by Cain and named after his son (Genesis 14).
ENOSH (אנוש, humankind) Son of Seth; the father of Kenan. The Jahwist
records the tradition that in some form Yahweh-worship began in Enosh's
time.
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ENROLLMENT (התיחש (heet yay khaysh), being enrolled in a family regis-
ter; apografh (apo gra pheh), registration). A listing of people in
a public register according to family, position, and tribe. Enrollments
were customary for conscripting soldiers. Solomon & evidently David
before him, enrolled aliens to conscript them for work. Priests kept fa-
mily registers to prove their right to priestly service and support.
Periodic enrollments seem to have been customary in Israel
prior to the monarchy in raising armies. Besides political enrollments,
it is quite likely that family and tribal genealogical registers were kept.
The emphasis on family and ancestry may have been because of the
importance of being a true son of Abraham and heir to the promises of
God. When & how often such enrollments were made is uncertain.
In the New Testament, Luke states that there was an enrollment
of Jews by families, in their native city for taxation purposes when
Augustus was emperor of Rome & Quirinius Syria’s governor. There
is some question as to the accuracy of Luke's date for the initial enroll-
ment. Historical sources outside the Bible are silent as to a world-wide
census at the time of Jesus' birth. Also, Sentius Saturnius was governor
at that time. Quririnius may have held some military position to which
the title “governor” may be loosely applied.
ENVY (קנאה (kin aw), jealousy; fqonoV (fe thon os)) The jealousy of God is
often referred to in the punishing of those who are evil. But the Old
Testament forbids man to be envious of violence.
In the New Testament envy is also forbidden, usually appearing
in lists of vices. Matthew says that Pilate knew that it was “out of envy”
that the Jews delivered Jesus up. Mark says that is was the priests who
were jealous of Jesus & wanted him out of the way. Paul bids the Gala-
tians not to envy one another, for envy estranges and love builds up, and
he tells the Philippians that some are preaching a different gospel of
Christ because they're envious of the response made to Paul's preaching.
EPAENETUS (EpsinrtoV, praised) A Christian and the first believer in the
Asian province. In Romans, Epaenetus is greeted by Paul almost near
the beginning of Romans 16, and is greeted as beloved.
EPAPHRAS (EpafraV, charming) A Colossae native; a Christian preacher
through whom the Colossians had come to know the gospel. Epaphras
was a fellow prisoner with Paul; before that he evangelized Colossae.
It was through Epaphras that Paul had come to know the Colossian
church’s situation. Paul praises Epaphras for his devotion to the well-
being of the Christian communities in Colossae, Laodicea, & Hierapolis.
EPAPHRODITUS (EpafroditoV, handsome, charming) A friend and co-
worker of Paul, a leader in the Philippian church who also served as
messenger & bearer of a gift from the church at Philippi to Paul. He
fell ill after he stayed to help Paul in prison, & was “near to death.”
He recovered and was sent back to Philippi. Although Epaphras is a
shortened form of Epaphroditus, we can hardly identify the Epaphras
of Philemon 23 & Colossian 4 with the Epaphroditus of Phillipians.
One man could not have been closely identified with the Philippian
church and also with the Colossae, Laodicea and Hierapolis churches.
The name was a common one in both forms in the first century after
Christ.
EPHAH (עיפה, darkness) 1. A son of Midian; the name of an ancestor that
became the name of an Arabian tribe. 2. A concubine of Caleb;
an ancestor's name that became the name of a tribe. 3. A Cale-
bite family.
EPHAH (MEASURE) (יפהא) A dry measure equal to a tenth of homer; it is
estimated to be 5/8 or almost 2/3 of a bushel, about 22 liters. In
Zechariah it seems to refer to a container rather than the
measurement.
EPHAI (עיפי, to fly) A Netophathite whose sons were among the captains in
the open country that joined Gedeliah at Mizpah.
EPHER (עפר, deer) 1. A clan of the tribe of Midian. The fact that the name
occurs in lists of tribes of the Hebrews nearest Midian could indicate
the incorporation of Midianite clans into Israel. 2. A family or
clan of the tribe of Judah. 3. A family or clan of the part of the
tribe of Manasseh which dwelt east of the Jordan River.
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EPHES-DAMMIM (אפס דמים, limit (end) of blood) A staging area be-
tween Socoh and Asekah for the Philistine armies before the battle
which was concluded by David's killing Goliath; the site is most
likely about 11 km northwest of Samaria.
EPHESIANS, LETTER TO THE. The tenth book in the New Testament (NT)
canon; purporting to be a letter from the apostle Paul to Christians at
destination, authorship, & purpose has been proposed. Most American
and European scholars, besides the British, have abandoned Ephesians'
authenticity for several reasons. At first, the case for authenticity seems
very strong. The letter claims to be by Paul, & many feel that the depth
and fervor of Ephesians demand Paul as the author. By the end of the
100s A.D. it was canonical and assumed to be Paul's.
Ephesians is the manifesto of a mighty controversialist at the end
of his days, “all passion spent.” Paul at last felt free to let his mind roam
in spacious regions of heavenly truth. Since the address in the letter's first
verse is uncertain, it may be that Marcion's title, “To the Laodiceans,” is
correct. It is also possible that Paul wrote a letter intended for all Gentile
Christians, and that the echoes from other letters he wrote must be due to
the apostle's own memory.
The people addressed cannot be Paul's beloved Ephesian converts;
the letter says that they were unknown to the writer, whereas Ephesus
was a familiar church to Paul. Moreover, Ephesians lacks the truly perso-
nal elements we expect in a letter to one congregation or to a specific
area. Another puzzling fact is that the earliest and best manuscripts fail to
retain the words “in Ephesus,” and read “who are also faithful” instead.
In so far as the language used, Ephesian has almost 100 non-
Pauline words, of which some 40 appear no where else in the NT. Even
the influence of Gnosticism and the mystery cults has been found in the
use of “the aeon of this world.” Also perplexing to scholars is the Greek
style, very different grammar & word choice, and the lengthiness of the
sentences, some of which take up 3 verses. Compared with II Thessalo-
nians, Galatians, Romans, or II Corinthians, Ephesians is a lifeless com-
position.
The views & themes in Ephesian are also unusual for Paul. It is
certainly not Pauline to define Christ's mission as primarily to reconcile
Jews and Gentiles. And Ephesians 2 fails to bring out Paul's very central
doctrine of baptism as a sacramental death. The universal nature of the
church in Ephesians is, of course true to Paul's view. But nowhere in
other letters of Paul are so many different themes such as the body, the
bride, the temple, the Israel, & the new Adam found together in the short
space of five chapters.
Two major objections to the authenticity of Ephesians are the rela-
tionship between Ephesians and Colossians; and the use in Ephesians of
phrases from the Paul’s canonical letters. 1/3 of the words in Colossians
are found in Ephesians, & 1/4 of the words in Ephesians appear in Colos-
sians. Colossians is clearly the prior letter, borrowed from to create Ephe-
sians. The borrower seems often to quote from memory, for the run of
consecutive words from Colossians seldom exceeds five.
The situation in both Colossians and Ephesians shows that, if both
are authentic, they must have been sent from the same prison cell within
days of each other. How then can we explain the radically different mea-
nings of certain words in the two documents? “Economy” in Colossians
means human stewardship; in Ephesians it means God's purpose for the
consummation of the times. “Mystery” in Colossians means the revealed
secret of “Christ in you, the hope of glory”; in Ephesians the secret is the
divine purpose to unite all things in Christ and to reconcile the Jews with
the Gentiles.
A third word that shows different usage between the 2 letters is
pleroma, fullness or fulfillment. In Colossians 1 it applies to God's dwel-
ling in Christ. In Ephesians 1, 3, and 4, it is applied to the church as the
body of Christ, either Christ as filling the church with his living reality or
the church as his body completing Christ. It remains strange that Paul
would use “pleroma” of Christ's relation to God in Colossians, & then im-
mediately after use it for the relationship of the church to Christ.
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Perhaps the most significant argument against Paul's authorship of
Ephesians is the exhibit of dependence on the remaining eight canonical
Paulines. The parallels are briefly as follows:
15 verses of Romans become 24 verses of Ephesians
15 verses of I Corinthians become 10 verses of Ephesians
6 verses of II Corinthians become 7 verses of Ephesians
5 verses of Galatians become 7 verses of Ephesians
2 verses of Phillippians become 3 verses of Ephesians
6 verses of I Thessalonians become 8 verses of Ephesians
Thus we can show how Ephesians is made up of phrases from
many of the other letters of Paul which have survived as part of the NT
canon. For all these reasons together—language, style, word usage, the
heavy dependence on Colossians, and the intricate borrowings from ca-
nonical Pauline letters—we are bound to conclude that Ephesians is not
from the hand of Paul, and is really not even a letter.
Those who believe in the Ephesians’ authenticity, believe Paul
wrote it from Rome
mon as a general letter summarizing his gospel and defending his mis-
sions. One scholar suggests that Ephesians was written to newly settled
congregations, while another has the theory that Ephesians is an edition
of Colossians to be used as a sermon, even though it doesn’t read like a
sermon.
Along the lines of it being an imitation, there is the view that its
writing was inspired by the publication of Acts and the concerted effort
to find Paul's letters. The ones he found were collected & published,
most likely by Onesimus, who was once the converted slave of Phile-
mon and now was bishop of Ephesus. He composed Ephesians and
placed it at the head of the other letters as a preface to them. There is
some weakness in this theory, such as Onesimus' dependence on Acts
to find the letters. Other adaptations of this theory amount to little more
than pure speculation.
The following points seem very probable: a.) the author of
Ephesians knew Colossians intimately. b.) He knew Paul’s letters as
a collection. c.) His primary theme is the unity of the church and its
obligation to grow in the love and power of Christ. d.) “At Ephesus”
in the first verse of the letter is probably the earliest guess about the sup-
posed recipients. e.) The writer cannot be identified. f.) The date
is later than 70 A.D., but the upward limit is uncertain; it was perhaps
90 A.D. g.) Ephesians is an original and brilliant composition in the
Pauline manner.
If it is the work of a disciple of Paul, he must be the supreme
interpreter of the apostle before Martin Luther. Many scholars seem
loath to abandon the Pauline authorship because to do so seems to les-
sens the value of Ephesians. Perhaps the document should win its au-
thority from its own qualities and in particular its capacity to be a vehi-
cle for the living spirit of truth, as it is in Jesus.
The contents of Ephesians' 6 chapters of may be presented as:
salutation; Jubilate or Benediction; Paul's prayers for the recipients;
redemption of the Gentiles into the one church; Paul's apostolic com-
mission; Paul's prayer renewed with a doxology; the ethical admonition
for church unity, Christian goodness; family duties, and Christian war-
fare; the visit of Tychicus; and closing benedictions.
The theology of Ephesians is that before all time God the Creator
predestined a salvation that should win people by his love and fashion
a universe agreeable to God's will. We Christians adore God as the all-
glorious Father, gracious & loving, the Father of Jesus the Messiah.
God is eternal, holy, provident, militant against the powers of darkness,
and above all a redeemer.
The Christology is basically Paul’s. Ephesians has no missionary
interest, for it is concerned with unity and maturity. Christ is not only
the church's head, he is also the head over the whole creation. The refe-
rences to the devil are notable. Some scholars would couch the concept
of evil spirits in psychological terms; others insist that the demonic ex-
presses a reality in the universe.
The divine forces’ captain is either Christ or the Holy Spirit. From
the Spirit is derived wisdom, revelation, and inward spiritual resource.
Believers are to be servants of the Spirit. The word of God is the Spirit’s
sword. As man lives by every word that proceeds from God’s mouth, so
is the Christian to fight by that word and thus wage war in the power of
God's Spirit. Ephesians adds little to Paul's teaching on the Spirit.
The Church is Christ’s body; Christ’s bride; and the Spirit’s temple.
The church is pleroma, the fulfillment of Christ, the full measure of his
being as the last Adam. Christ therefore cherishes his own flesh when he
cares for the church. It has been said that in Ephesians, Christ, the head
is in heaven, his body the church is on earth. The church is catholic or
universal, because it is one, holy, loyal to the one faith, and apostolic.
The church is incomplete, however; it has to grow, and love must be its
primary characteristic. It is also blessed with ministerial gifts from the
risen Christ. The sacrament of baptism is prominent in Ephesians, but the
Lord's Supper is missing, most likely because it was missing from Colos-
sians, his model letter.
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The ethics of Ephesians are that the self-sacrificial offering of the
Lord Jesus Christ is the pattern of the love which should exist between
the saints in the broader sense of “saints.” Christians are to live in a way
befitting their high calling, and also in patience and mutual forgiveness.
In the contrast between light and darkness, light exposes and therefore is
the instrument of judgment.
Ephesians’ section on slaves is about the same length as that in
Colossians, but its section on wives is much longer. It is worth pondering
how a wife may be truly united to a husband and yet be subjected to him.
The need for prayer is summarily stated; and the advice on Christian for-
titude in the endless warfare has always been seen as being presented in
a grand manner.
mercial and religious center, where the apostle Paul worked for an exten-
ded period of around three years.
On the deeply indented western coast of Asia Minor a number of
river valleys descend to the sea and provide natural channels of travel &
favorable locations of great cities. Although the Cayster River of Ephe-
sus was smaller than the rivers on either side, it emptied into a good har
bor and also gave excellent access to the valleys of both the Hermus and
the Maeander rivers.
In ancient times a gulf of the Aegean Sea evidently extended in
ward to where the city was. The natural harbor provided by this gulf was
gradually filled up with the silt of the Cayster; efforts to deepen the har-
bor only hastened the process of filling it in. In spite of these difficulties
& because of its advantageous situation in other respects, Strabo reports
that in his time Ephesus was growing daily & was the “largest emporium
in Asia this side of the Taurus.” Today the ancient city’s ruins lie in a
swamp 6 or 8 km. inland from the sea.
The first inhabitants were driven out by Androclus, son of Athens'
king, who was later regarded as the founder of Ephesus. This took place
soon after 1000 B.C. Long before their coming there existed at Ephesus
the cult of a goddess whom the Greeks identified with Artemis. The first
temple of Artemis was built by the architect Chersiphron. When Croesus
of Lydia began his conquest of everyone west of the Halys River
Greeks he laid siege to were the Ephesians around 560 B.C. In the extre-
mity of the seige they dedicated their city to Artemis. In 546 B.C., Cyrus
defeated Croesus. After that victory, Harpagus, general of the Persian
king, systematically overcame the Ionian cities, including Ephesus.
See also entry in the Old Testament (OT) Apocrypha/Influences
outside the OT section of the Appendix.
We have some idea of the layout of ancient Ephesus from the re-
maining ruins. Beginning in the east, about 2.3 km east of the harbor is
the site for the sanctuary of Artemis. In the oldest period there was an
enclosed area which contained a stone platform about 3 by 4.2 meters
where the goddess-image may have stood, & a lower platform on which
an altar may have rested. Later the two platforms were combined into
one, and after that an actual temple was built on them.
In the middle of the 500s B.C. the great marble temple was built
as planned by Chersiphron. It must have been a structure of about 54.5
by 109 meters in size, with the shrine of the cult image directly over the
place of the oldest sanctuary. After the fire and in the time of Alexander,
the temple was raised on a large terrace about 2.8 meters higher than be-
fore. There are indications that the placement of pillars, and therefore
the plan of the temple was the same as the old one. This temple was one
of the 7 wonders of the ancient world; its worshipers feared that it might
eventually “count for nothing” through the preaching of the apostle Paul.
From this temple an ancient street led approximately 1.6 km west
and a little south to the city gate on the northern edge of the hill called
Panajir Dagh, roughly 1.1 by .8 km in size. Next to the gate on the north-
west slope of this hill was the stadium, whose southern seats were suppor-
ted by the rocks of the hill. It evidently served for athletic events and
races of all sorts. Gladiators and wild animals may also have fought there,
as Paul's words in I Corinthians 15 seem to indicate, if taken literally. An
inscription shows that it was rebuilt under Nero (54-68 A.D.).
About 600 meters south of the stadium was the great theater of
Ephesus.It was set in a hollow on the western slopes of Panajir Dagh, and
faced directly toward the harbor, about half a kilometer to the west. The
seats were curved in somewhat more than a semicircle within the hill’s
hollow. The theater could hold 24,000. It was in this theater that Deme-
trius instigated a riot against the preaching of Paul (Acts 19).
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The main and most magnificent street of Ephesus ran in a straight
line from the theater to the harbor. With a monumental gateway at each
end, this thoroughfare was about ten meters wide, flanked on either side
with colonnades over 4.5 meters deep. Along the street’s north side, in
the city’s very heart was a series of buildings; the general layout dates
from the 300s B.C. They were baths, gymnasiums, and other buildings.
In the region south of the road and southwest of the theater is the
agora. An open rectangular area, 109 meters on each side, was surroun-
ded by pillared halls. On the east side was a fine hall, dating from the time
of Nero, apparently destroyed by an earthquake. A library and a temple
were located not far from the agora.
A little over a half-kilometer separates Panajir Dagh from the larger
hill to the west. Bulbul Dagh has a roughly oblong shape measuring 2.9 by
.9 km. On its slopes facing the agora there was another temple. Judging
from a colossal marble statue of Domitian, this was the temple erected at
whom the Christians regarded as their archenemy.
Christian tradition connects John the apostle and evangelist with
Ephesus. On a hill east of the temple to Artemis a church was built to mark
the spot where tradition says he viewed the idolatrous worship in the tem-
ple and where he was later buried. The church was first a four-sided struc-
ture in the 300s A.D. Later a large cross-shaped basilica was built by ad-
ding on to the original. The church was rebuilt on a yet more magnificent
scale under the Byzantine emperor Justinian (527-65); it attained a length
of over 130 meters, with six large domes rising above its central portions.
This was the church of St. John the Theologian.
Between the stadium & the harbor are another large church's ruins,
built on a pagan building's foundation. Actually it was a double church, or
2 churches, one behind the other. Their combined length was 242 meters
& they were erected in the 300s A.D. Inscriptions show that it was the
Church of the Virgin Mary, in which the Council of Ephesus met in 431.
On the northeast slope of the Panajir Dagh is the Catacomb of the
Seven Sleepers. Legend has it that 7 young men were sealed in a cave
in 250 A.D. They fell asleep, and awoke more than 150 years later to tes-
tify again to their Christian faith. After their death they were buried in the
cave and a church was built over it, perhaps in the 400s A.D., and thus at
about the same time that the 7 youths were supposed to have been giving
their final testimony, that an inscription was found in the ruins of a gate-
way which bears witness to Christianity's victory at Ephesus, by replacing
the image of Artemis that was once nearby with a cross.
The first archaeological excavation at Ephesus was done by J. T.
Wood in 1863. Wood was able to track down the location of the Temple to
Artemis through an inscription that was found at the theater. The wall of
the temple was found in 1869.
EPHLAL (אפלל, judgment) A Jerahmeelite family or person.
EPHOD (אפד, short coat) The father of the Manassite leader Hanniel, who
was selected to help with the distribution of the western Jordanian Canaan
among the tribes to occupy that territory.
EPHOD (אפוד, to gird on, a sleeveless coat) An Old Testament term the
meaning of which is not clear.
The ephod is a priestly garment of some kind. Samuel wore a linen
ephod, as did David; some believe that here it means “covering for naked-
ness.” Priestly document prescribes an ephod for the high priest. It was a
costly shoulder garment of gold, blue, purple, and scarlet. There seems to
be little doubt that the ephod was a garment and possibly a sleeveless,
close-fitting garment put on priests and possibly on idols.
There are a number of passages where the meaning is uncertain.
Gideon is said to make a golden ephod for Ophrah. This could be a golden
image representing Yahweh or the garment of the image with pockets for
the oracles. Some others see a connection between the ark & the ephod.
It is clear that there is a very close connection between ephod & teraphim,
and that the ephod was a means of consulting the oracle. The writer of this
article concluded that the ark and ephod could not be identified or com-
pared, for the biblical ark was not an instrument of divination. Just as a
crucifix or cross may be a large object on the wall of a church, or a small
object carried on the body, so ephods may have been of different sizes
and weights.
E-49
EPHPHATHA (אפתח; effaqa) An Aramaic expression attributed to Jesus
in his healing of a deaf mute. Mark translates it as “be opened.” As else-
where in Mark, the retention of the Aramaic may be attributed to the de-
sire of preserving actual expressions of Jesus.
EPHRAIM (אפרים, double fruitful) 1. The younger son of Joseph, & the
source of the name of 1 of the 12 tribes. He was born the second son of
Asenath, but was treated as the first-born. His name was originally a geo-
graphical name & later became the name of a tribe.
The tribe of Ephraim belongs to that group which apparently did
not immigrate until a later stage in the process of the Israelites' occupa
tion. Like Manasseh, & unlike Benjamin, the third partner, Ephraim first
developed as a separate tribe in the cultivated area. The land's southern
1/3 separated its people sharply from the north by its numerous deeply
cut transverse valleys. Although their territory occasionally extends be-
yond the hills, “the hill country of Ephraim” was identical with tribe of
Ephraim's territory. In the book of Joshua, the southern boundary runs
approximately along the line Beth-horon-Bethel, the northern boundary
running along the general line of the Wadi Qanah.
In the course of time Ephraim outstripped its larger brother tribe
Manasseh in importance. Joshua was Ephraimite, the victorious leader
of the Ephraimite levy, and the arbiter of the territorial claims of the
tribes. He organizes Israel around a new Yahweh sanctuary in the heart
of the land. Ephraim invaded his later dwelling place from the north.
Ephraim pushed forward along the base of the Benjaminite wedge fur-
ther toward the southwest.
Ephraim, like other tribes, did not yet get down into the plain for
a long time. On the other side, Ephraim expanded toward the north.
The battle between Gibeon & Aijalon also shows Ephraim in the period
of its expansion. Pirathon was also an Ephraimite town in theoretically
Manassite territory. In confederation,” they served under Gideon, when
they were successful in the levy of the tribe catching 2 Midianite princes
at the fords of the Jordan. In the tradition where they served under
Jephthah it is apparent that Ephraimites also took part in the colonization
east of the Jordan.
It appears that at times Ephraim played a special role in the 12-
tribe confederacy. In the Song of Deborah, where Zebulun & Naphtali
clearly carried the main burden of the battle, the place of honor at the head
of the list is nevertheless granted to Ephraim. Then too, there is the shift
of the confederacy’s center from Shechem in Manasseh's territory to
Shiloh in Ephraim's territory.
Samuel, the great initiator of the Israelite kingdom was an Ephrai-
mite. Under Solomon the central district around which the remaining 11
districts are arranged in a circle and which also includes the territory of
Manasseh is the hill country of Ephraim. Jeroboam came from Ephraim.
He represented the rights of the common freeman against Solomon’s au-
thority, & completed the northern tribes’ separation the Davidic dynasty
into the northern kingdom of Israel.
In the later literature the older importance of Ephraim can still be
recognized in that Ephraim is almost always given precedence over Ma-
nasseh. The term “Ephraim” was used to designate what was left after the
Syro-Ephraimite War of 734-732, in which the kingdom of Israel saw it-
self robbed of territories, and Israel was reduced to its central territory, the
old settlement area for the tribes of Ephraim & Manasseh. That term was
still used 10 years later when this remnant was absorbed by the Assyrian
province of Samaria.
The prophet Hosea uses “Ephraim” as an alternate expression for
Israel throughout his book. Isaiah was the other prophet who witnessed
the catastrophe of the war just mentioned. He identifies Ephraim alone as
an ally of Damascus, and sometime later Samaria is for him the capital of
Ephraim. Even the Deuteronomic historian makes a concession once to
the linguistic usage of his time in calling the northern part of the land west
of the Jordan the “house of Ephraim.”
2. A town in the vicinity of Bethel which is mentioned in
II Samuel 13, and is probably the city referred to in II Chronicles 13 as
“Ephron.” In the New Testament the same city is probably mentioned in
John 11, where Jesus went to the country near the wilderness, to a town
called Ephraim. The Jewish-Roman historian Josephus mentions Vespa-
sian's capture of “Bethel and Ephraim, two small cities.” Et-Taiyibeh,
about 6 km northeast of Bethel and Samieh nearby have been proposed
as possible locations for Ephraim.
E-50
EPHRAIM, FOREST OF (יער אפרים, yah 'ar ef rah eem) A wooded stretch
east of the Jordan into which David’s forces under Joab chased & slaugh-
tered the army of the rebellious Absalom, who was caught by his hair in a
tree and later slain by Joab. This land was lost by the tribe after its defeat
by Jephthah near Zaphon.
EPHRAIM GATE (אפרים שער shah 'ar ef rah eem) A gate of the first
(oldest) rampart of Jerusalem, 400 cubits, or 180 meters east of the Cor-
ner Gate. The name was also used in naming the gate put in a similar
place in the second wall, restored by Nehemiah.
EPHRAIMITE A member of the tribe of Ephraim.
EPHRATHAH (אפרתה, fertility) 1. The second wife of Caleb and the mother
of Hur and Ashur.
2. A city in Judah; identified with Bethlehem (pronounced beth
lekh hem in Hebrew). Ephrathah was an older settlement which became
absorbed into Bethlehem; it was still separate in the patriarchs' time.
3. A district in Palestine; apparently the same as Ephraim.
EPHRATHITE (פרתיא) 1. Inhabitant of Ephrathah. 2. King James Version
form of Ephraimite.
EPHRON (עפרון, gazelle) 1. Son of Zohar; the Hittite from whom Abraham
purchased the field containing the cave of Machpelah Mount
ted with any certainty. 3. A city in the vicinity of Bethel which Abijah
took from Jeroboam I, probably to be identified with Ophrah, about 6.4
km northeast of Bethel.
(See also the entry in the Old Testament Apocrypha / Influences
Outside the Bible section of the Appendix.).
EPILEPSY A distressing disorder of the central nervous system, marked by
the occurrence of unconsciousness, convulsive fits, or both. The attacks
are associated with abnormal rhythms in the cerebral cortex. Typical epi-
lepsy is often preceded by a peculiar sensation which may involve hea-
ring, sense of smell, sense of taste, or sight. Minor seizures may involve
loss of consciousness or disorientation, without any convulsions. Major
attacks invariably produce unconsciousness, muscular flexion, & arching
of the back. Mark’s Gospel furnishes an accurate picture of this; Luke
employs medical terms occurring in Hippocrates and elsewhere.
ER (ער, watchful) 1. The first-born son of Judah and the Canaanite daughter
of Shua. Although Er was married to Tamar, he died childless.
2. Grandson of Judah, and the father of Lecah. 3. The father of
Elmadam in the Lukan genealogy of Jesus.
ERAN Son of Shuthelah, and grandson of Ephraim; ancestor of the Eranites.
ERASTUS (ErastoV, beloved) 1. City treasurer of Corinth
greeting to his fellow Christians. Such officials were usually slaves or of
servile origin, though often wealthy. 2. A companion of Paul. It seems
unlikely that he was identical with the one just mentioned above.
ERECH (ארך, patience) One of the largest & most important cities of Sumer
located at modern Warka, around 256 km south of Baghdad
there were settled in the cities of Samaria.
The original village, Kullab, was founded by the “Ubaid” people
around 4000 B.C. The city called Erech, was built by Meskiaggasher,
who lived around 3000 B.C. His successors were Enmerkar, Lugalbanda,
and Gilgamesh. Among the more important later rulers of Erech were
Lugalzaggesi, Utuhegal, & Sinkashid around 1800 B.C. From the time
of Hammurabi, Erech became part of Babylonia and shared its fortunes
and misfortunes. After the fall of the Parthian Empire it was abandoned
altogether.
Erech's chief deity was An, the king of the Sumerian pantheon.
Erech's most beloved and celebrated deity was the ambitious and aggres-
sive goddess of love, Inanna. She married the god Dumuzi to ensure the
fertility and prosperity of Sumer, according to theologians. Excavations
in Erech were conducted by German expeditions in 1912-1913, 1928-
1939, and 1954-1959. The city walls, which were 9.6 km in circumfe-
rence were laid bare, as were two ziggurats and several temples from the
centuries right before & after 3000 B.C. From the same general period
came hundreds of pictographic tablets, many seals & seal impressions, an
extraordinary alabaster vase, and a remarkably expressive life-size head
of a woman.
E-51
ERI (ערי, watchful) Son of Gad and the ancestral head of the “family of the
Erites.”
ERUPTION (ספחת (sap pakh ath), scab) Any cutaneous redness, rash, or
sore. It is a symptom of leprosy.
ESARHADDON (אסר־חדן, in Akkadian it means “Ashur has given a bro-
ther") King of Assyria and Babylonia (681-669 B.C.); son of Sennacherib,
and father of Ashurbanipal.
Esarhaddon had to fight for his throne when his father Sennacherib
was murdered. Esarhaddon had been previously designated crown prince,
and said he was in hiding when Sennacherib met his fate. He was able to
gain enough support to defeat his brothers in a battle at Hanigalbat. Since
Esarhaddon was clearly pro-Babylonian, he had no difficulty with Babylon.
He made a son of Merodach-Baladan governor of Bit-Yakin, and this gover-
nor remained loyal to his lord.
Esarhaddon's military planning was mainly directed toward subdu-
ing Egypt. He attacked Egypt in 675 B.C. Although his army met an initial
defeat, it continued to fight, and his general Sa-Nabu-su eventually defea-
ted Pharaoh Taharqa, forcing him to retreat toward Upper Egypt. Memphis
was conquered in a quick advance. The Assyrian domination was soon
threatened by rebellion, & Esarhaddon found it necessary to embark in
669 on a new campaign. On the way to Egypt, however, he fell sick and
died. Esarhaddon was luckier in the area north & west of Assyria. In 679
the Cimmerians suffered a defeat, & in 673 sharp attacks had been moun-
ted against the Medes. A alliance with Scythians against the Medes was
made and cemented by the marriage of a daughter of Esarhaddon to a bar-
barian ruler.
He was likewise rather fortunate in his arrangements for the suc-
cession to the throne. His younger son, Ashurbanipal was made crown
prince and assumed an important share of administrative duties, while his
elder brother, Samassum-ukin, was made king of Babylon. In 672 the
high officials of the country had take an oath to assure the succession of
Ashurbanipal. In 670, this arrangement proved a success, inasmuch as
Ashurbanipal became king without any difficulty. Esarhaddon dedicated
much effort to the rebuilding of Babylon, & was much less interested than
any other Assyrian king in the embellishment of his capital, Nineveh.
ESAU (עשו, hairy) Son of Isaac and Rebekah; elder twin brother of Jacob;
traditional ancestor of the Edomites. (See also Edom).
When barren Rebekah conceived, two children “struggled together
within her,” and she gave birth to twin boys. The first, being red and hairy,
was named Esau; the second, having grabbed his brother's heel was
called Jacob. This story describes the relation of the Israelites to the
Edomites. Although Esau was the first-born, Jacob would be master over
him.
Jacob became a shepherd while Esau became “a skillful hunter, a
man of the field”; Isaac love to eat his game. When he returned famished
from an unsuccessful hunt, Esau impetuously bargained away his birth-
right for bread and pottage. For a third time the older brother was sup-
planted by the younger. When Esau brought in the savory food to obtain
his father's deathbed blessing, he received instead a curse. As a result of
this deceit Esau hated Jacob; & his plans to kill him were thwarted only
by Rebekah's prompt intervention. When Jacob returned to Palestine
twenty years later, he made careful preparation both to appease Esau & to
protect himself. Esau met his guilty brother & received him back without
malice or recrimination.
Edom's relations with Israel in the 900s & the 800s B.C. offer a
parallel. The Edomites were conquered by David in the 900s & remained
subject to Judah until the reign of Joram. In the final characterization the
shortsighted selfishness and impetuosity Esau shows as a young man
must be balanced by the generosity and forgiveness that is seen in his
reconciliation.
ESCAPE, ROCK OF (המחלקות סלע (sel ah ham mah leh koth), rock of
smoothness) A place, perhaps a cliff, in the wilderness of Maon to which
David fled from Saul. It could be a cliff separated from another cliff by a
narrow ravine. If a detour was necessary, it was nearly completed, since
Saul appears to have been rather close on David's heels.
E-52
ESCHATOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT (See Biblical Entry on Judgment
Days, Old Testament)
ESCHATOLOGY OF APOCRYPHA (See the Judgment Days entry in Old
Testament Apocrypha / Influences Outside the Bible section of the
Appendix. )
ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT (See Biblical Entry on Judg-
ment Days, New Testament)
ESEK (עשק, strife, contention) A well dug by the servants of Isaac, which
received this name because the herdsmen of Gerar contended for it and
forced the patriarch to abandon it.
ESHAN (אשען, support) A village of Judah
Hebron. The location is uncertain; it is possibly about 16 km southwest
of Hebron.
ESHBAN (אשבן) The 2nd son of clan chief Dishon; ancestor of a native Horite
sub-clan in Edom
ESHCOL (אשכל, grape cluster) 1. Brother of Aner and Mamre the Amorite,
who were allies of Abram in the defeat of Chedorlamer. 2. A valley near
Hebron (probably to the North) from which Israelite spies brought back a
cluster of grapes so large it had to be carried on a pole between 2 of them.
ESHEK (עשק, oppression) A Benjaminite person or family descended from
Saul.
ESHTAOL (אשתאול, petition) A town first assigned to Dan and then incorpo-
rated in the Judahite district of Zoray-Azekah. Samson first responded to
the Spirit of God between Zorah and Eshtaol and after his death was
buried there.
ESHTEMOA (אשתמוע, obedience, listening post) 1. Son of Ishbah; a
descendant of Caleb. (I Chronicles 4). 2. A Maachathite, son of Ho-
diah (I Chronicles 4).
3. A city of Judah assigned to the Levites and named as a city of
refuge, about 14.4 km south of Hebron. It was one of the cities to which
David sent some of the booty from his recapture of Ziklag.
ESHTON (אשתון , effeminate) A family or clan of the tribe of Judah
bly a Calebite (I Chronicles 4).
ESPOUSAL (חתנה (kha toon naw), marriage; כלולה (keh lo law), wedlock)
King James Version translation of Hebrew words.
ESSENES (Esshnoi) An important Jewish community which was flourishing
in Palestine during the lifetime of Jesus (See also Dead Sea Scrolls and
Qumran, Khirbet entries in the Main Section and in the Old Testament
Apocrypha / Influences Outside the Bible section of the Appendix).
Their teachings and practice were well known for centuries through the
writings of Philo & Josephus. The name Essene has been derived from
numerous Greek and Hebrew words, whose meanings range from “holy”
to “physician” to “observers of the law.” There is no scholarly consensus
on the etymology of the name Essene.
Sources of Information—Part of the information we have on Es-
senes comes from Philo of Alexandria's description of an Essene-like com-
munity in Egypt. The Palestinian Essenes may have been more rigorously
activistic than their contemplative brethren in Egypt because of the neces-
sities of economic survival. It is equally possible that they are quite inde-
pendent in origin. However, the hymns & worship material in the Dead
Sea Scrolls seem to fit very well with the worship practices of the Egyp-
tian community.
E-53
Josephus, a Jewish historian, has a detailed and lengthy account of
the Essenes in The Jewish Wars (75-79 A.D. At the age of 16, Josephus
resolved to acquaint himself with the various parties of his nation: the
Pharisees, the Sadducees, and the Essenes. He did a thorough investiga-
tion, and even went into the wilderness for three years under the tutelage
of a man named Bannus; mostly likely, he never became even a probatio-
nary member of the Essene community. He finally joined the Pharisees.
There are indications that certain parts of his description of the Essenes
ultimately rest upon eyewitness accounts from some who did join.
Pliny the Elder was a soldier along with Vespasian, & possibly in
company with the Tenth Legion as it marched down the Jordan Valley in
May, 68 A.D. When Pliny mentions the Essenes amidst their palm trees
he is most likely referring to a religious community which must have
lived in or near the 'Ain Feshkha oasis overlooking the western shore of
the Dead Sea south of Jericho.
At the north end of the 'Ain Feshkha oasis on a plateau overloo-
king the Wadi Qumran were some ruins of ancient buildings. By the
study of coins, it was conclusively established that this community was
in deed occupying the oasis in the first Christian century. There is no
doubt that its agricultural potential was sufficient to respond to deter
mined efforts at cultivation. We may assume that the Essenes of Pliny
are the Essenes of Philo and Josephus, & that while their larger mem-
bership was scattered throughout the villages and towns of Judea, the
headquarters of their community was in the wilderness near the Dead
Sea.
The Dead Sea Scrolls were an essential part of this community's
library. They provide an interior point of view of the community.
Above all the scrolls make possible understanding of the expectations
this Jewish sect had concerning judgment & salvation. Another source
comes from Bishop Hippolytus of the 200s A.D. Hippolytus consi-
dered the Zealots and the sicarii (assassins) to be subordinate groups of
Essenes and omitted all references to sun worship as a practice of the
Essenes. Hippolytus may have used a source in common with Josephus
and may at times be nearer to that source.
History of the Essenes—The Essenes seem to have had their
origins among the Hasideans. In the Jewish nation following the Mac-
cabees, the revolutionary families vied with one another in a power
struggle. The house of Simon the Hasmonean finally emerged as the
dominant party, with a firm grasp on the high priesthood & eventually
the kingship.
3 parties concerned with God's rule over their nation were the
Sadducees, the Pharisees, and the Essenes. They all followed strict
observance of Mosaic law entailing a national existence separate from
the Gentiles. Jewish tradition pictures the Essenes active in Jerusalem
up to the reign of Aristobulus I (105-104 B.C.). By the end of Alexan-
der Janneus’ reign around 76 B.C., the Essenes had made a complete
break with the Hasmoneans and were sharply critical of the two other
parties mentioned earlier. At some time during, if not prior to the reign of
Janneus, the Essenes moved their headquarters to Qumran.
The major political problem with which Herod the Great had to con-
tend was the opposition of the great mass of people who refused to ac-
knowledge the legitimacy of his claims to the throne. Herod's solution
was to rely heavily on Roman military power and to grant concessions to
anti-Hasmoneans parties. Some agreement was reached between Herod
and the Essenes, under which the Essenes could have returned to
Jerusalem.
The friendly relations Herod had with the Essenes had become le-
gendary in Jewish tradition. If the Essenes did return to Jerusalem, it is
likely that they had effective assurances that the new high priest would
pay due regard to their legal interpretations. It was probably in this period
of unrestricted religious freedom that the Essenes carried out their missio-
nary campaigns which led to Essene communities in all the villages and
towns of Judea.
They would have had strong sympathies with those who tore down
the golden eagle above the gate of the temple. Protests over the execution
of those men led to the slaying of 3,000 worshipers during the Passover
festival after Herod's death in 4 B.C. This event and the later crucifixion
of 2,000 Jews by Gentile troops sent down to restore order in Jerusalem
caused the Essene headquarters to shift back to Qumran. When they
moved their headquarters back to Qumran after Herod's death, they left
behind them in Jerusalem only their name on a gate on the south wall of
the city as a legacy.
Two generations later, at the outbreak of war with Rome in 66
A.D., one of the Jewish generals was an Essene named John. What part
the larger community as a whole played in this war is not known. Their
headquarters at Qumran was burned during this war, and the fate of their
postwar membership is unknown. Ultimately the Essenes were probably
assimilated by the Jewish Christian and the Jewish groups which survived
the prolonged struggle with Rome.
E-54
Description of the Essenes: General, Communal, Marriage, &
Admission Requirements—The period between 4 B.C. and 66 A.D. was
an important period for the Essenes. In this period two new Jewish com-
munities were born, Baptist and Christian. An understanding of Essene
teachings, practices, and organization increases understanding of the con-
temporary Baptist and Christian movements, as well as of the Pharisees
and the Zealots.
The Essenes believed themselves to be New Covenant people,
which was both the “renewed old covenant” and the “eternal covenant.”
Their membership of 4,000 could have gathered at Qumran on special oc-
casions. But probably not more than a few hundred Essenes lived at the
Qumran retreat. The great majority was scattered throughout Judea. The
Essenes were scrupulous in adherence to Levitical purity laws, and as a
result avoided all ceremonial uncleanness, which included contamination
by the Gentiles in larger cities.
The Essenes practiced a communal ownership of property. Jo-
sephus elaborates on the remarkable hospitality Essenes showed other
members of their brotherhood. “. . .The resources of the community are
put at their disposal as if they were their own. Visitors enter the houses of
men whom they have never seen before as though they were their most
innocent friends.” Josephus writes that the Essenes “entirely addict them-
selves to husbandry. . . the wages of these different occupations. . . [are
given to the] treasurer . . . [who] takes it and buys what is necessary . . .
There is ' no buying or selling among themselves, but each gives what he
has to any in need & receives from him in exchange something useful.”
Philo adds: “Thus having each day a common life and a common
table, they are content with . . . frugality [and] shun expensive luxury as a
disease of both body and soul . . . he who wishes may easily take any gar-
ment he likes, since what one has . . . belongs to all and conversely what
all have one has . . . if any one is sick he is nursed at common expense
& tended with care and thoughtfulness by all. The old men . . . are treated
as parents [of all]."
There can be no doubt that Essene practice should be interpreted
against the background of the holy-war legislation in the Torah. Every Es-
sene was subject to the authority of his superiors. Each Essene was a
volunteer for the Lord and subject to the disciplinary demands of the holy-
war legislation of the Torah. Only two things were left to individual dis-
cretion, assistance to one in need and compassion. And because the Es-
senes believed they were the true Israel, the Children of Light preparing
for the final war against the Children of Darkness, they avoided marriage
in keeping with the holy-war legislation.
Philo writes that the Essenes eschew marriage “because they
clearly discern it to be the sole or the principal danger to the maintenance
of the communal life.” But Essenes didn't condemn marriage on principle.
There was another order of Essenes who thought that those who decline
to marry cut off the chief function of life, the propagation of the race. They
believed that some more realistic adjustment to the circumstances conse-
quent to the delay of the holy war was necessary.
It was not easy to become an Essene. Josephus writes: “A candi-
date anxious to join their sect is not immediately admitted. For one year
. . . they prescribe for him their own rule of life, presenting him with a
small mattock, a loincloth . . ., and white raiment . . . he is allowed to share
the purer kind of holy water, but is not yet received into meetings . . . his
character is tested for two years more, and only then, if found worthy, is he
enrolled in the society . . .
He is made to swear oaths: first . . . he will practice piety toward
God, next that he will observe justice toward men; that he will wrong none
whether of his own will or under another's orders; that he will forever keep
faith with all men; . . . that should he himself ever bear rule, he will never
abuse his authority; . . . to be forever a lover of truth and to expose liars; to
keep his hands from stealing . . . unholy gain; to conceal nothing from the
members . . .”
Description of the Essenes: Discipline, Temple
and Scriptural Study—The discipline of the Essene community was very
strict. Josephus informs us: “Those who are convicted of serious crimes
they expel from the order . . . [The starvation that results from the expelled
remaining bound by oaths regarding food] has led them in compassion to
receive many back in the last stage of exhaustion . . . They are just and
scrupulously careful in the trial of cases, never passing sentence in a court
of less of than a hundred . . .
After God they hold most in awe the name of their lawgiver [either
Moses, or their founder, the Teacher of Righteousness], any blasphemer of
whom is punished with death. It is a point of honor with them to obey their
elders, and a majority . . . They are stricter than Jews in abstaining from
work on the seventh day. They are divided . . . into four grades . . . a senior
if but touched by a junior, must take a bath . . ."
The Essenes participated in the Jerusalem temple cult worship by
sending what they had dedicated to God “into the temple.” Their purity
laws were so strict that they could not enter the “temple’s common court.”
Thus it was necessary for them to offer sacrifices within the purity of their
own community. Archaeological evidence and literary evidence suggests
that the Essenes did continue to observe sacrificial rites.
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Josephus seemed to think that the Essenes were sun worshippers;
neither Philo nor Bishop Hippolytus make reference to this practice. The
Dead Sea Scrolls do suggest that the time of sunrise was the occasion for
special prayers for the community. They are then dismissed by their supe-
riors to the various crafts in which they are severally proficient and strenu-
ously employed until the fifth hour. They assemble again, and bathe their
bodies in cold water. When they have taken their seats in silence, the
baker serves out the loaves in order, & the cook sets out a plate for each
with a single course. Before the meal begins, the priest says a grace, and
none may partake until after the prayer. Then laying aside their raiment,
as holy vestments, they betake themselves to their labors until evening.
In the Essene community headquarters near the Dead Sea, archaeo-
logists uncovered cisterns, some of which were appropriately designed to
be used by the Essenes when they took their baths. Also uncovered was
a large room capable of seating 200 persons and a smaller room contain-
ing over 1,000 pieces of pottery. This building complex was presumably
the refectory and its pantry which served the community as the sacred
place where the Essenes at Qumran gathered to eat in silence and with
thankful hearts.
The Essenes gave great importance to the study of their sacred
scriptures. Though they studied their scriptures every day, they particu-
larly devoted the sabbath to this activity, which was done in synagogues.
There, arranged in rows according to their ages, the younger before the
elder, they listened as one of the sacred rolls was read aloud by one per-
son, and then interpreted by another. There still exists written commen-
taries or peshers of these interpretations. The Essenes believed that
God's promises foretold by the prophets were actually being fulfilled in
the history of their own community. Therefore, they studied their scrip-
tures to understand better what was happening to them and what would
happen in the future.
ESTHER, BOOK OF (אסתר, star) The Old Testament (OT) story which tells
of the Jews’ deliverance won by Esther under the Persians and gives the
reason for the institution of Purim; a symbol of heroic resistance
against persecution. “Esther” was her Persian name; “Hadassah” was
her Jewish name.
The great Persian king Ahasuerus, angered by the disobedience
of his queen Vashti, banished her from his presence. Among the beauti-
ful maidens selected to fill her place was Esther, a beautiful Jewish
maiden living in the Persian capital of Susa. She so pleased Ahasuerus
that she was made queen. Then Esther's cousin and guardian, Mordecai,
aroused the enmity of Haman, the newly appointed prime minister, who
influenced the king to issue an edict authorizing the annihilation of all
Jews.
When Mordecai heard of this, he informed Esther & urged her to
appeal to the king. Esther told the king that the edict would mean the
destruction of her and her people, & persuaded him to issue a new edict.
This edict led to Haman being executed on the gallows he had prepared
for Mordecai. The Jews annihilated their enemies, & Mordecai became
the new prime minister. Then Mordecai & Esther instituted the annual
celebration of Purim to commemorate those days when the Jews won
deliverance from their enemies.
The book of Esther is unique among the books of the Bible in the
way it deals with religious issues. The underlying question of destruction
or survival for Jews under persecution is certainly a matter of religious
concern. The book of Esther itself, however, seems deliberately to avoid
specific references to God or to religious practice. Indeed, God isn't men-
tioned in the book. Prayer does not accompany Esther's fasting, and vic-
tory seems to depend, not so much on loyalty to Judaism as on the use of
political maneuver & appeal to self-interest. The spirit of vengeance is
considerably more prominent than that of devotion.
One consistent purpose of the book, however, is to explain the
celebration of a traditional observance of Judaism, the festival of Purim.
From the first mention of Haman's patiently casting “pur” or lot until he
could find a day propitious for attempting the destruction of the Jews to
the time he was hanged, the story seems to move inevitably toward the
institution of the festival of deliverance. Purim is a festival, beloved in
the Jewish tradition, which is not mentioned in the Law.
It is the explanation of this festival's history which gives unity to
the book as a whole. One purpose of the book may well be to reconcile
actual diversity in the celebration of Purim in different localities. The
author employs the customary formula for the beginning of an historical
account. It is now generally accepted that Ahasuerus is the Hebrew ren-
dering of the Persian Khshavarsha (Xerxes in its more familiar Greek
form).
Other details in the book of Esther aren't supported by historical
evidence. Xerxes' queen was neither Vashti nor Esther. If Mordecai
went into exile in 597 B.C., he must have been at least 122 years when
he became prime minister, and Esther his cousin would have been 100
years younger than he was. The edict of Xerxes permitting the Jews to
kill 75,000 of his subjects is highly unlikely.
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Other elements seem to have literary rather than historical justifi-
cation. It is difficult to tell whether the author invented a wholly fictio-
nal account, put in Jewish form a Babylonian festival based on the ad-
ventures of Marduk and Ishtar, or based his romance on some incident
involving the historical Xerxes. It seems probable that the book of Es-
ther is primarily romance and not history.
The book of Esther may be dated in the late Persian or the Greek
period, in a time of concerns with political survival and of great bitter-
ness towards Gentiles. The earliest witness to the existence of the book
is probably the primary Greek OT. The reign of John Hyrcanus around
125 B.C., which was during the height of Hasmoneans, makes a proba-
ble setting for the book.
Esther is the last of the 5 Scrolls or Writings of the Hebrew canon.
Both Jews and Christians were slow to admit Esther to the canon. For later
Judaism, Esther has become the symbol of deliverance, while Haman re-
presents the force of cruelty and prejudice from which Jews have suffered
throughout their history. The downfall of Haman is a triumphant reminder
of the continuing life of Israel in the face of persecution. The book's vin-
dictiveness is certainly one element in it, but the book's power as a symbol
of hope in a history of suffering is equally clear. (See also the Esther entry
in the OT Apocrypha / Influences Outside the Bible section of the
Appendix.).
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