Appendix A:
Old Testament Apocrypha
&
Influences Outside of the OT
Introduction
Table of contents
Prologue i
Old Testament (OT) Apocrypha i
List of
Apocrypha
Pseudepigrapha ii
List of Pseudepigrapha
Influence of Intertestamental Literature on the OT Text iii
Evidence for and Against a
Standard Hebrew Text iii
General Overview: Qumran & Other Ancient OT Texts iv
Murabba’at Scrolls and Others v
The Cairo
Other Ancient Versions vi
Septuagint (See Introduction to Appendix C)
Greek Language vi
Intertestamental Period viii
Chronology of the Period viii
[Page numbers are at the "bottom" of the "page."]
Prologue
This section will deal with Old Testament
(OT) apocrypha and pseudepigrapha, inter-testamental times (the time between
the Old and New Testament (NT)), and influences on the OT which took place
during NT times. Apocrypha means “hidden books,” and applies, in ordinary
Protestant usage, to a collection of fourteen or fifteen books, or parts of
books, which at one time stood in our English Bibles between the OT and the NT.
(The NT apocrypha will be dealt with in a separate section of the Appendix.)
The term “pseudepigrapha” implies that
the writings referred to are written under an assumed name in order to lend
more prestige to the writings. In terms
of the writings included in this section the term is misleading on two
counts. First, not all of the writings
are pseudonymous, and there are other pseudonymous writings in the OT itself
(e.g. Daniel and Song of Songs, which is also known as the Song of
Solomon. Second, the word
“pseudepigrapha” unduly emphasizes a feature of the books which is of minor
importance.
After the OT was written and before Jesus’
lifetime, there were many events, institutions, and people that exerted a
substantial influence on the NT and Christianity. The intertestamental material contained in
this section amplifies and embroiders matters touched on or suggested by the
books of the NT canon. It is important
to explore this time in history and its influences, the extent of which are
largely unknown to the average student of the Bible. It is also important recognizing the shaping
of the OT that took place in NT times.
OLD TESTAMENT APOCRYPHA. We
start with a list of the Apocrypha.
Apocrypha
I Esdras Baruch
II Esdras Prayer of Azariah and the Song of
Tobit
Judith Susanna
additions
to the Book of Esther Bel and the Dragon
Wisdom
of Solomon Prayer of Manasseh
Ecclesiaticus,
or the Wisdom of I Maccabees
Jesus the Son of Sirach II Maccabees
(See
also the list under the Pseudepigrapha
heading in this introduction.)
These
books came to be included in the Greek OT, but not in Hebrew scriptures. They were all written during the last two
centuries B.C. There are history books,
romantic tales, a beautiful psalm, two works on wisdom, as well as additions to
the books of Esther, Jeremiah, and Daniel.
Their translation from Hebrew and Aramaic into Greek shows how popular
this literature was in the time between Testaments.
This
term first applied to books which were to be kept or “hidden” from the public
because of the wisdom which could be understood only by the wise. Among the apocrypha themselves, II Esdras
speaks directly to this practice in chapters 12 and 14. The origin of many of the ideas in these
books and others that were meant only for the wise can be sought among the
Essenes, a religious sect during those times.
The Apocrypha we have were but a small number of the “outside books”
written by the Jews between 200 B.C. and 100 A.D.
After
the fall of Jerusalem Jerusalem Jerusalem
i
The
first Christians found a number of works in the Greek OT they used which were
not in the Hebrew scriptures. They read from all the writings found in their
book and even quoted from the apocrypha, which they saw as no different from
the other books, but as holy scripture.
The influence of apocrypha is felt in every part of the Christian
scriptures. The influence of the Wisdom
of Solomon upon Paul has long been recognized in several of his letters. Paul and others also drew from passages in I
and II Maccabees.
The
early church fathers treated the canonical and non-canonical books much
alike. They often quoted from the
Apocrypha in the same way as they quoted from the canonical books of
scripture. The present usage that
designates books that are not canonical, or accepted as divinely inspired goes
back to Jerome, Origen, and Augustine in the 400s A.D. There were then, two opposing views of the
Apocrypha in the early church: one which regarded these books as canonical, the
traditional view of the church; and a view which regarded them as uncanonical
when compared to the Hebrew scriptures.
The
Protestant Reformation set the tone for ignorance of these books. Since the
Bible became the central authority of the church, rather than the Vatican Rome
Protestants
drifted towards the policy of excluding these books; the policy became official
in England
Recent
discoveries have changed the attitude towards the Apocrypha, especially the
discoveries of manuscripts at Qumran . To quote E.
J. Goodspeed: “. . . no one can
have the complete Bible without the Apocrypha.
From the earliest Christian times down to the age of the King James
Version, they belonged to the Bible. . . historically and culturally they are
still an integral part of the Bible.”
PSEUDEPIGRAPHA. A
large group of Jewish writings outside the OT canon, which were composed
originally in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek between 200 B.C. and 200 A.D. They include in the main apocalypses, legendary
histories, collections of psalms, and wisdom works. Because certain of these works are attributed
to Adam, Enoch, Moses, Isaiah, and other great OT characters, the term
“pseudepigrapha,” works written under a fictitious name, became applied in
Protestant circles to this whole body of literature.
The term “pseudepigrapha” is clumsy and misleading, and is used here
only for the convenient grouping of these writings. In this article the outside books are
classified as Palestinian (originally written in Hebrew or Aramaic),
Alexandrian (originally written in Greek, or as coming from Qumran
(the Dead Sea Scrolls). These last works
were found among the manuscripts discovered at Qumran
in 1947. They consist of known, as well
as unknown works, written in Hebrew and Aramaic during the intertestamental
period.
Palestinian
Testament of the 12 Patriarchs Enoch
Psalms of Solomon Martyrdom
of Isaiah
Lives of the Prophets Apocalypse of Moses
Jubilees (Lives of Adam & Eve)
Testament of Job Assumption
of Moses
Apocalypse
of Baruch
Alexandrian
Aristeas IV Maccabees
Sibyline Oracles Slavonic Book of Enoch (II Enoch)
III Maccabees Greek Apocalypse of Baruch
Qumran (Dead Sea Scrolls)
Jubilees
Enoch Liturgy of Three Tongues of Fire
Testament of Levi Hodayoth
Apocryphon of Genesis Psalms of Joshua
Pseudo-Jeremianic Peshers
War Scrolls
ii
The large number of Jewish books
outside the Old Testament attest to their wide use and great popularity. The author of II Esdras, for example, tells
us that there were seventy “hidden” or secret books. These “hidden” books were obviously the
apocalypses which contained esoteric teachings about the last things. These works, however, were banned by the
rabbis at the Council of Jamnia (90 A.D.).
The Christians had appropriated many of these works and had recast them
in such a way as to fit into their own views.
In the early days of the Christian
church the outside books were as popular among the Christians as they were
among the Jews. The influence of the
literature upon the NT writers is a well-known fact; I Enoch had the most
influence. It is the only book from this
entire literature which is directly quoted from by a NT writer. Jude 14-15 cites from I Enoch 1. Unlike the more favored outside books, the
Apocrypha, the great bulk of these writings never got into the Greek and Latin
manuscripts of the early church.
The Jewish outside books were, for
the most part, written in conscious imitation of Hebrew canonical books. The canonical book of Daniel written about
170 B.C., served as the model for the large number of apocalyptic works. Although the apocalyptic way of thinking had
its roots in Ezekiel 38-39; Joel; and Zechariah 9-14, it came to full bloom
during the difficult days of the Maccabean Revolt. It presented a theological view of history
which would sustain the Jews in their times of trouble.
Since victory over God’s enemies
could not be achieved on the field of battle, the apocalyptic writer taught
that the battle had to be joined in the spiritual realm. Loyalty and devotion to God, disciplined
lives, and moral purity were the most effective weapons, therefore, against the
powers of evil. Ultimate victory belonged
to God’s saints, no matter how dark the present situation. The figure of the Messiah played an ever more
important role in this great drama of the last days, and many ideas which are
familiar to the Christian derive from this literature. One of the most important is the doctrine of
the resurrection of the body.
The value of these outside books for
both Jew and Christian is immeasurable.
Judaism has neglected these for the most part, and Christian scholars
have regarded them as peripheral and unimportant for biblical studies. In the end, however, no one can understand
the religious development of later Judaism or the background of the NT without
studying the Jewish outside books. They
serve as a bridge between the Old and New Testaments, supplementing much that
is found in the Hebrew scriptures, and heralding new ideas which appear in the
NT records.
INFLUENCE OF
INTERTESTAMENTAL LITERATURE ON
In the study of the ancient
versions we find strong contemporary indication of a change of how they are
viewed as a result of a more adequate application of historical criticism than
was formerly practiced. There is a persistent
stress on the individuality of each version and the interpretation of the
parent text, and not thin-king of it as a storehouse of possible “readings,” to
be used for retranslation into an “original.”
Consequently, caution is called for in the use of these texts.
Evidence
for and Against a Standard Hebrew Text—The Dead Sea Scrolls imply that in some cases the Septuagint or primary Greek OT followed
a different, pre-Masoretic Hebrew text, either a standardized text, or one that
slowly emerged out of a chaos of divergent popular texts. The primary Greek text’s witness makes it
clear that its parent text frequently diverged from the classical text. The Samaritan OT’s witness and the Hebrew
text’s witness also argue against an early, standardized text.
It appears implicit in such passages
as Deuteronomy 17 and Joshua 1 that at least the Torah was sacrosanct and
inviolable in text form even before the close of the OT. There is Rabbinic reference in Midrash Rabbah
to an authorized Law Scroll in the Temple Court that researcher consulted on to
verify points of laws. Rabbi Ishmael
said to a scribe: “My son, be careful, because thy work is the work of Heaven:
if thou omittest a single letter or addest a single letter, thou dost as a
consequence destroy the whole world.”
References outside rabbinic writings support the theory of a fixed text
for the OT’s first five books alone.
The commonly accepted view has been
that though the Torah was fixed, there were still minor controversies among
the rabbis about Prophets and the Writings until well into the Christian
era. The evidence points to the
likelihood that there was a fixed, standard text for the Torah in the
pre-Christian times, though it is obvious from the primary Greek and Samaritan
OT, Targums, and the Dead Sea Scrolls, that there existed also other text
forms. The Isaiah scrolls from Qumran are sufficiently near the
MT to Point to a “Masoretic version” in contrast to other version in the
pre-Christian period. The rabbinic
debates in the Mishnah presuppose a three-part division of the OT by 100
B.C.
iii
Regarded as a
whole, the discipline of textual criticism of the Hebrew OT has in principle
two quite different purposes: establishment of the Masoretic Text; and
recreating the hypothetical “original Hebrew.”
The problem becomes complicated when the other scrolls and especially
the Qumran documents are
considered. If the theory of
transmission presented in this article is right, even the MT itself is a
hybrid, and was never ideally free of mixed readings or vocalizations except in
the ben Asher MSS.
The need for
the students of the text to deal with the hypothetical pre-Masoretic text is
manifest. Their starting point is in the
MT, together with the variants. Before
making changes, the student observes that great progress has been made in the
study of the Hebrew words in the OT, and new meanings have been established for
words which in the past were confusing.
Nevertheless,
changes are still necessary using the resources of the versions specialist as a
guide. It is utterly simplistic to turn
the primary Greek OT into Hebrew and claim that it represents the text of the
Hebrew in its pre-Masoretic “original” form.
As a result of all the safe guards to the text and versions,
conjectural changes must play a far less prominent role in textual
criticism. Textual critics are
interpreters of the text, and aim to produce an intelligible translation of the
Scriptures. But they do not present
their changes as an authoritative reading.
General
Overview: Qumran and Other Ancient OT Texts—The Dead Sea Scrolls are the
earliest surviving source material for the text of the OT. What we often forget is that the scrolls from
Qumran are different from other
ancient sources, and that the biblical scrolls from Qumran themselves are not
homogeneous, but contain divergences both numerous and very important.
In general, two observations may be
made. First there is in all the Qumran
Scrolls a marked absence of any sign of uniform transmission or standardized
text. The text of most of the larger Qumran
biblical manuscripts [MS for single; MSS for plural] suffers from scribal
corruption. Numerous divergent text
forms of the same book were transmitted by the same sect. Second, the possibility of sectarian and
deliberate intrusion of textual changes must be borne in mind when we deal with
the biblical MSS. The Qumran
biblical MSS are about a thousand years earlier than the previously oldest
Hebrew Bibles; they are actual copies texts which were current in the period
before Christ.
It is impossible at present to indicate
the significance of each text of the Qumran Scrolls. The general picture that emerges from the Qumran
biblical scrolls is that the sectarians had no fixed text form, nor did they
regard divergent forms as disturbing. It
is remarkable that divergent text forms in Qumran
should agree with versions so well known as the primary Greek OT and the
Samaritan OT. But did a similar number
of versions exist within Judaism? What
the Qumran scrolls have produced goes beyond a slight degree of
freedom to a distinct OT version(s).
The text of the 1st Qumran Isaiah scroll contains the whole text of Isaiah and is in a well-written script, but it has a large number of textual corruptions in it. There are 54 columns and the text is divided into paragraphs, which is also found in the Masoretic text (MT), but the paragraph division inQumran ’s
Isaiah does not coincide with that of the MT.
A remarkable feature of Qumran ’s first Isaiah scroll is that it reveals two quite
distinct scribal traditions in the two halves of the scroll. The text in the
first half is much more nearly free from corruption, i.e. the “modernizing” of
verb forms.
The text of the 1st Qumran Isaiah scroll contains the whole text of Isaiah and is in a well-written script, but it has a large number of textual corruptions in it. There are 54 columns and the text is divided into paragraphs, which is also found in the Masoretic text (MT), but the paragraph division in
Another important feature is that the
scroll has corrections in it. Additions
are in the spaces between lines and even running into the margins. In Isaiah 21 and 28 the divine name Adonay is added to the four letters of
the sacred name. There are also
additions to the divine name in chap. 30, 45, and 60. In most corrected passages the corrections
make the text agree with the MT. Special
interest attaches to the insertions which deal with the divine name. The Genizah fragments and the textual variants
in the MSS and Hebrew printed Bibles will show that there does not seem to have
been a rigidly accepted form. The
significance of a number of signs and crosses in the margins of this scroll
remains a mystery.
Scholars have been interested in the
textual divergences which occur in this scroll.
There are numerous readings which vary from the MT, and it is claimed
that in some instances they confirm conjectural corrections. The New Revised Standard Version has included
as many as 13 changes mainly based on the readings of this scroll. An examination of the MS shows that near
prototypes of the primary Greek text and the Samaritan OT were known and
transmitted by them, and possibly a near prototype of the MT as well.
iv
The 2nd Qumran
scroll to be unrolled is in many respects a more interesting scroll than its
sister; it was one of the more difficult scrolls to unroll. Taking both Isaiah scrolls together there are
available for study some 22 fragments from Isaiah 1-30; the bulk of the
material is from chapters 38-66. The
only hypothesis which has been based on the textual witness confirms the view
that in pre-Masoretic times the Hebrew text was transmitted in popular,
unauthorized forms.
Since the 2nd Isaiah scroll is
so essentially similar to Masoretic texts in the Cairo Genizah, it may be
claimed that the MT was based on a pre-Masoretic text. It is very significant that among the Qumran
texts one has turned out to be very similar as to what later became the
rabbinic standard, orthodox text. If
such a text can be shown to have existed in pre-Masoretic times, is it likely that
rabbis at a later date chose this particular text as their own. The 2nd Isaiah scroll suggests
that the textual tradition which led to the MT existed in orthodox Judaism
before the time of the Masoretes.
Other Qumran
scrolls of interest include two scrolls containing text from Samuel, one of
which goes back to near 200 B.C. The
significance of the Samuel texts appears to be twofold. First, the affinities
between them point to the existence of “types” of text among the Qumran
biblical scrolls. There were minor deviations
among scrolls of the same “type.” Second
is that the question of the Hebrew parent text of the primary Greek OT is still
unsettled. Judicious re-translation of
this text may suggest a Hebrew which might be at least a form of the pre-Masoretic
text.
Another scroll which relates to
previously known text forms is an Exodus which has affinities with the
Samaritan OT and the primary Greek OT.
Spelling and word usage in the Qumran scrolls
varies from both the Samaritan OT and the MT, but has affinities with the first
scroll of Isaiah mentioned earlier. The
important feature is the degree of textual agreement with the non-Masoretic
text of the first five books of the OT. Qumran
scroll fragments of Leviticus 19-23 use the Paleo-Hebrew style of alphabet and
not the Samaritan style. The two styles
existed side by side for centuries.
Murabba’at
Scrolls and Others—When we turn to
the Wadi Murabba’at biblical scrolls, the textual setting is very
different. The MSS in general belong to
the period of the Bar Choba Revolt in 132-135 A.D. The biblical Hebrew texts consist of
fragments of the first five OT books and of Isaiah; scholars are united in
stressing the uniformity with the MT that characterizes them. The fact that these texts were current in
Rabbi Akiba’s time points to their existence well before the 100s A.D. Akiba’s text form was more carefully transmitted
and stripped of divergences. The
Murabba’at Hebrew texts are those which correspond most closely to the MT of
all the Dead Seal biblical MSS.
There was also a leather scroll in Greek
from a cave in the same area containing fragments of the minor prophets Jonah
Micah, Hahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, and Zechariah. One scholar finds that the
MS, from the late first century A.D., consists of a revision of the primary
Greek text. It is the text used by
Justin Martyr, in the same century. The
Murabba’at Greek text shows that there was in circulation among Jews and
Christians a common text form, accepted by both parties, which was a revision
of the earlier Greek text. Another
scholar accepts evidence that the scroll belongs to a period between 50 B.C.
and 50 A.D. It is yet another divergent
text, which were abundant in the Judaism before the Hebrew and Greek Bibles
texts were fixed. So there is here still
further evidence, even in the Church Fathers, that a variety of text forms of
the Greek Bible were current among Jews in the pre-Christian era. Thus the Murabba’at Greek minor prophets
belongs to the texts which shows an attempt to establish alignment between the
Greek and Hebrew Bibles.
See
entry on Scribes in the Introduction
to the main section of the Dictionary.
The
Cairo Britain University of Cambridge
v.
Next to the Greek Bible and possibly
contemporary and parallel to it are the Aramaic Targums (translations). We have the literal official translation of
the first five books of the OT in Targum Onkelos and of the Prophets in Targum
Jonathan, and we have free interpretations with sometimes very lengthy
explanations of passages. How far back
they go is not known but there is evidence of their existence in pre-Christian
times. In the synagogue, the oral translation
follows the reading of the Torah verse by verse and the reading of the Prophets
after every three verses. It is assumed
that the freely paraphrased Targums are older than the literal renderings, and
thus more valuable for the treatment of the text and the linguistic study of
Aramaic. Later Targums show indications
that parts of the literal Targum Onkelos mentioned earlier are present in them.
In their present form Onkelos and
Jonathan assume a long period of revision which began as far back as the 100s
A.D.; the final revision took place in Babylon Aquila ’s translation, which was totally independent of the
LXX and other Greek versions. But the
new translation did not necessarily abolish the already existing
renderings. It remains likely that the
paraphrased Targums retain pre-Masoretic material.
There is no shortage of MSS from the 100s
and later. It is possible to show that
the text form transmitted in these MSS contains a departure from the ben Asher
texts, and a tendency to include hybrid readings and traces of the ben Naphtali
text. The Psalms were printed in Hebrew
in 1477, the first five books of the OT in 1482. 22 of the most important early traditions include:
the rabbinic Bible of Jacob ben Chayim (1524/5); the Complutensian Polyglot
(1514-17); Kennicot (1776-80); Ginsburg (1894, 1908, 1926); and Kittel’s Biblia Hebraica. The Samaritan Version, at least in theory,
goes back to the time of the Samaritan schism.
Other
Ancient Versions—Translations of the
Scripture or some part of them, were produced in ancient times for those who
found it difficult or impossible to read the original language. When certain Aramaic congregations became
less and less familiar with classical Hebrew, paraphrases in Aramaic were
produced; other groups of Jews rendered the OT into Greek, either from the
original Hebrew or from Old Greek translations.
After the Exile the practice arose among
Palestinian Jews of including an oral paraphrase in the Aramaic
vernacular. The beginning of this custom
may be reflected in Nehemiah 8. At first
this oral interpretation was a simple paraphrase, but later it became more
elaborate and eventually these Aramaic Targums were reduced to writing. Ignorance of Hebrew called the Targums into
existence; older forms of Aramaic such as the Targums were as little understood
by those speaking a more modern Aramaic.
Today Targums exist for the Pentateuch, the OT’s first five books, and
most of the Writings. These paraphrases
tended to avoid direct reference to the name of God, frequently using the word
Memra (“the Word”), and they avoided
referring to God as a human figure. Some
Targums include longer or shorter stories that serve to illustrate the
scripture.
There are 3 Targums for the
Pentateuch. The oldest appears to be the
Palestinian Pentateuch Targum, now available at the Vatican Palestine
The official Targum on the Prophets is
known as Targum Jonathan bar Uzziel. It
had its origin in Palestine but was given final form in Babylonia . It adheres more closely to the
text of the Former Prophets (i.e. Joshua, Judges, I and II Samuel, I and II
Kings) than to the text of the Latter Prophets (i.e. Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel,
and the minor prophets).
One or more Targums exist for all books
of the Writings, except for Ezra, Nehemiah, and Daniel. These Targums differ widely among themselves
in the degree of freedom of paraphrase.
None of the surviving Targums is older than the 400s A.D.
See
also the Septuagint section in the
Bible Versions section of the Appendix (C).
GREEK LANGUAGE (See also section
in main introduction) The Greek language is not one language but many. It has been a “living” language for more than
3,000 years. A very general
classification of its development is as follows:
Classical
Greek Before 300
B.C.
Hellenistic
Greek 300 B.C.- 550
A.D.
Byzantine
Greek 550 A.D.-
1453 A.D.
Modern
Greek After 1453
A.D.
vi.
In its earlier forms, Greeks would express
fairly complex ideas in only a few words, by adding prefixes, suffixes, and
infixes to the stem of the words. This
process is called synthesis. In later
periods they said this sentence with a series of words. This form of expression is called
analysis. The Greek language has moved
from synthesis to analysis over the years.
However,
since language does not exist apart from individual human beings who use it, and
since those people will accept or resist change in varying degrees, various
stages of this process existed at the same time. Moreover, events of a non-linguistic nature
have advanced in periods of political tumult, or retarded change in times of
peace and prosperity.
Therefore,
diversity in the Greek language springs from diversity in cultural levels. There is a Greek literary language and a
popular Greek language, which varied in how closely they resembled one another
at different times in Greek history. The
tension between bookish language and talk has been variously resolved at
different times and different places.
There was also the diversity which resulted from the Greek people
speaking and writing a number of local dialects. Yet, the forces of commerce, literature, and
empire drove the Greeks toward a common dialect. The political pre-eminence of Athens Greece
More
and more scholars are finding themselves in agreement with the idea that the
Attic dialect is the major source of Hellenistic Greek, the Greek used to
translate the OT, and to communicate in the NT period. This Greek was not a single language; it was
made up of literary Greek, which was separated from the spoken language; and
Koine or common Greek, which was a mixture of Attic Greek and Ionic Greek.
The
conquests of Alexander the Great carried the Greek language over large areas of
the Mediterranean world. In the early
part of the Hellenistic period enormous numbers of people learned the Greek
language in adulthood as a second language, and most were only able to achieve
a limited knowledge of the spoken language, which resulted in the loss of
literary refinements. A further factor
that contributed to the simplification of the language was the political
turmoil that characterized the centuries preceding Augustus. A stable, dominant, cultured class devoted to
carrying on a high literary tradition was an impossibility.
From
100 B.C. on, the imitation of the Greek of the classical period, or Atticism,
consisted essentially of the use of archaisms and obsolete forms. But the attempt of literary and educated
people to keep a language close to the standards of the past is hazardous. It would be like all contemporary English
authors regarding and using Elizabethan literature as the norm for vocabulary,
grammar, and syntax. Although written in
Greek, the NT has less of this literary character than any other piece of
literature that comes to us out of the Hellenistic age. In the NT, Luke ranks highest in
approximation of Attic usage; Revelation ranks lowest.
The
nonliterary Greek of this period is usually called the Koine. The Koine is a common language, in that it is
the language of the common people who are not schooled men or very familiar
with literature. There was no standard
Koine, and we must recognize that a set of grammatical rules is not possible
for the Koine as it is for Attic Greek in the classical period. There are different definitions of Koine. It is
“that popular Greek language of the Hellenistic period which shows life and
development in comparison with usage of the past.” Or it is “the sum of the
development of the Greek of common and commercial speech from the time of
Alexander the Great to the close of ancient history.”
Koine
also means that it isn’t a geographical dialect. And since the original, native
non-Greek languages continued to be used throughout the Hellenistic period,
Koine Greek was the bridge between these alien islands of language. Thus, Koine rested upon its practical
usefulness rather than upon the universally accepted tradition of great
literature. This nonliterary Greek was
vigorous, alive, and fresh with the feel of everyday living. The vernacular strives for clarity and
emphasis. This leads to an overabundance
of expression. Parenthetical glosses distend the body of many sentences;
prepositions and adverbs pile up before and after verbs.
The
heavy emphasis and redundancy of the Koine is offset by its simplicity. It lacks or ignores those subtleties of
expression which delighted the great minds of the Golden Age of Greek
literature. The simplicity of much of
the Koine is due to the lack of subtlety and sophistication in its
authors. The complexity of formal, literary
Greek and especially its conjunctions were beyond the ability of Koine’s
average user.
Uneducated
people simplify their language by selecting one of the many linguistic formulas
available to them for a particular purpose.
In Koine, the people chose the infinitive form with a conjunction to
express purpose. The users of the
literary Greek language in the Hellenistic period increased its use of the
infinitive as a noun. On the other hand,
the non-literary Koine rapidly substituted dependent clauses for the
infinitive.
vii.
One of the common processes for
simplifying language is the creation of new forms by analogy with the old.
Another cause of simplification was changes in pronunciation. By the 100s A.D. there was a surplus of
vowels. This led in time to adopting one
of these forms and excluding others. For
those who read books written in the Koine form of Greek, the most garish style
was often greeted with the complimentary statement, “He talks just like a
book!” The language used in Koine is
paradoxical. Its language was robust but
limited, vulgar but simple, bare but colorful; it was so varied as to make
generalizing about it impossible.
For
the purposes of this article, the most influential literature produced in Greek
in this period is the Greek Bible. The
NT has the greater value as being written originally in Greek, whereas the
Greek OT is a translation. These editors
were educated in the strictest grammar of classical Greek and in many instances
changed the wordings of the MSS to bring them into conformity with formal Greek
standards. The first Greek New Testament
printings are not dependable witnesses to spelling and syntax of the original
Greek NT.
Among
the non-biblical sources that contribute to our understanding of Greek, we find
at least 50,000 documents that have been discovered and published: family
letters, love letters, orders to a tenant farmer, and tax receipts. All of these are written by individuals who
had little spelling and less grammar.
There is a variety of content and a variety in the amount of formal,
literary Greek that is used. For the
most part, these documents are closer to the spoken language of the
people. The nonliterary documents are a
valuable and extensive source for knowledge of the nonliterary language and
usage of this period.
Another
primary source for knowledge of the nonliterary Koine is Epictetus, a Stoic
philosopher born around 60 A.D. There
are striking parallels between Epictetus and some of Paul’s writings, even in
matters of style. The writings of some
of the earliest Christian fathers have been formed by accident of publication
into a collection called “The Apostolic Fathers.” The books that are referred to as New
Testament Apocrypha and were produced in the late 100s and early 200s should
also be used to understand the Greek of this period.
Of
the other writers of the period, Philo of Byzantium shows evidences of
developing Koine in inflection, syntax and vocabulary. And Apollodorus the Mythographer is another
writer of this period. He writes using
the Koine forms of inflection, vocabulary, spelling and syntax. Many writers of the period fall between the
peaks of literary excellence and common speech.
The
Greek Bible is today the most important book written in the Koine. It is less common than the papyri; it is less
literary than the writings of those following formal literary guidelines. The OT is translation Greek, and since the
Semitic original was a sacred language, it was to be changed as little as
possible in translation. For the NT
writers the Greek OT’s style had a position of prestige analogous to that held
by Attic in the esteem of cultured Greeks.
The
Greek OT is the most extensive work written in the Koine and the most varied in
quality. The best known is the
translation called the Septuagint—so called from the tradition that it was made
by 70-72 translators. There are also
several other translations: Aquila’s
Version, made about 130 A.D. by a Jewish proselyte; Symmachus’ Version, which
aimed at accuracy and at being good Greek; and Theodotion’s translation at the
end of the 100s A.D.
viii.
INTERTESTAMENTAL PERIOD (See Table)
Some entries in this section deal
primarily or exclusively with the time between what is covered by the Old
Testament (OT) and the beginning of what is covered by the New Testament
(NT). This time period can’t be
precisely defined, because there is no consensus on when Ezra and Nehemiah, the
last books written in the OT, were actually written. The period roughly covers
the 400 years before the birth of Jesus.
See table below.
Chronology
of Postexilic Judaism (424-4 B.C.)
Foreign Rulers Dates
B.C.
Persian Rulers
Xerxes II 424-423
Darius II 423-404
Artaxerxes II (Mnemon) 404-358
Artaxerxes III 358-338
Arses 338-336
Darius
III 336-331
Native Rulers of Judah
And Notable Events B.C. Greek Rulers Fall of Tyre
Beginning of the Seleucid 312 Syrian/Greek
rulers
(Syrian) era Antiochus
III (the Great) 223-187
Persecution of the Jews and Seleucus IV 187-175
pollution of the temple 167 Antiochus
IV) Epiphanes 175-163
Judas Maccabee leads revolt 166-160 Antiochus V 163-162
The temple purified 164
Jonathon Maccabee as leader 160-152 Demetrius I 162-150
and high priest 152-142 Alexander Balas 150-145
Antiochus
VI 145-142
Simon Maccabee 142-134 Demetrius II 145-138
John Hyrcanus 134-104 Antiochus VII (Sidetes) 138-129
Judas Aristobulus 104-103
Alexander Janneus 103-76
Alexandra 76-67
Aristobulus II 67-63
Pompey takes Jerusalem
Hyrcanus II 63-40
Antigonus Mattathias 40-37
Herod the Great 37-4
While the OT does not mention the events
of this time, many things took place which had a great influence on the
development of Judaism after the exile, and on the environment in which Christ
and Christianity would be born into. For
instance, Alexander's march through history and the lands of Palestine
Of
equal importance and influence was the Roman Empire , which governed a steadily expanding territory during
these 400 years. The language of the
Greeks provided the common linguistic vehicle for the spread of Christianity,
and the Romans provided the physical roads and political stability which aided
the followers of Christ in the spread of the gospel.
ix.
A
ABADDON (אבדון (destruction)).
A poetic name for the nether world.
In rabbinic literature it comes to mean specifically the place of
damnation and punishment.
ABRAHAM, APOCALYPSE OF. The
first 8 chapters deal with Abraham's youth and tell how he became convinced
that there is but one God. Abraham flies
up to heaven and beholds the divine throne and the angels. Abraham boldly discusses with God the problem
of evil, but the outcome of the conversation is uncertain. The book is deeply concerned with the problem
of evil and divine justice. The devil
appears under the name of Azazel. He
tries to dissuade Abraham from going to heaven.
In Abraham's conversation with God, Azazel seems to have certain rights
in the world economy. The writing shifts between many ways of thinking about
God which contradict one another, at least in part. It is the Jewish author's struggle to
reconcile the massive tragedy of his time with his faith in one righteous God. The reference to the destroyed temple and the
gloomy tone of the writing fix the date in the 100s A.D.
ABRAHAM, TESTAMENT OF. The
booklet deals chiefly with the circumstances of Abraham's death. The angel Michael is sent to him, but the
patriarch refuses to die. Abraham pleads
that he may see all created things before death. When Abraham sees men sinning, he curses them
and they fall dead. Angels take part in
their judgment and the soul of Abel acts as judge. Returning to earth, Abraham again refuses to
yield up his soul. An angel of Death replaces Michael and reveals his holy
terrors; Abraham still refuses, and is eventually tricked into giving up his
soul. The intent of the author seems to
have been to create a moving story rather than to advance any particular
theological interest.
ABSALOM. The
father of Mattathias, captain in the army of Jonathan Maccaabeus.
ABUBUS. The
father of Ptolemy, governor of Jericho
ACHIOR (חיאוא (brother of light)).
The Ammonite commander who warned Holofernes that God would defend
the Israelites.
ADAM
In the Apocrypha, the role of
Adam enters into a new and highly significant development. Israel's search to understand the meaning of
political disaster led to a rethinking of the traditions concerning sin and
fall. First, the glorification of Adam
before the Fall has been greatly magnified.
Adam was placed on the earth a “second angel.” Adam is created in the image of God to be
worshiped by the angels.
Second,
the malignant effect of Adam's sin on the human race receives a new emphasis
which had previously never been made explicit.
Adam brought death and transcended the ordinary in every way. He was created immortal, with superhuman
wisdom, size, and indescribable glory; his fall was a disaster.
AE-1
Rabbinic
[“official”] Judaism contrasted Adam with Abraham and the Messiah, but they did
not develop the concept of the second or last Adam. Jewish philosophy developed two types of men:
the heavenly man, created, not formed after the image of God; and the “earthly
man,” the historical Adam, who became the father of sinful humankind. In spite of sin, “earthly man” was somehow
still glorified.ADAM, BOOKS OF Extra-canonical
writing in which the biblical story of Adam and Eve is elaborated. The misnamed Greek “Apocalypse of Moses”
begins with the expulsion from Eden, and tells of a dream in which Eve has a
premonition of the murder of Abel; it skips to the end Adam's life, when he
suffers sickness and pain for the first time.
Seth and Eve return to Paradise in search of healing for Adam; Seth is
attacked by a beast which no longer respects the image of God. The archangel
Michael notifies the pair that Adam cannot be healed and must die. While Adam lies dying, Eve at his bidding
tells how they yielded to the blandishments of Satan. Adam's soul goes to the third heaven; a week
after Adam's death, Eve dies. Seth is
told to mourn only six days and to be cheerful on the sabbath.
The
Latin “Life of Adam and Eve” contains additional material. In this version, Adam and Eve are so
desperate that Eve urges her husband to slay her. Satan explains why he is so hostile to them,
namely that when Adam was first created Satan in his pride refused to bow down
to a younger and inferior creature, and so brought about his own downfall.
These
writings seem to date from the beginning of the Christian era and are well
within the traditions of the Palestinian Haggada. Our present texts contain a few very
Christian insertions.
ADASA (Adasa) A town on the road between Beth-horon and Jerusalem
ADDAN (אדן (strong (place)))
An unidentified Babylonian place from which came returning exiles
unable to prove their ancestry.
ADDUS (AddouV) Head of a
family of “sons of Solomon's servants.”
ADIDA (Adida) A hilltop town
on the road from Jerusalem
ADORAIM (אדורים (two threshing floors)) This city and Marisa were the two major cities
of Idumea. At Adora (Adoraim) Simon
Maccabeus stopped the advance of Trypho in 142 B. C. In the book of Jubliees, this is also where
Esau's forces attacked Jacob's, which held the Hebron fortress. Esau was killed and buried here.
ADUEL ( אדיאל) An
ancestor of Tobit, among the descendants of Asiel and the tribe of Naphtali.
AHASUERUS ( אהשורוש (a haz oo er us))
According to Tobit, he and Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Nineveh
AHIKAR (AciacroV (ak ee ah kros); precious brother) The nephew and benefactor of Tobit. Ahikar was a trusted official to Sennacherib,
the king of Assyria. Ahikar's nephew
framed Ahikar by forging treasonous letters to the kings of Egypt under his
name. Ahikar was condemned to death, but
was spirited away by a king's servant, with a criminal dying in his place.
Thereafter,
the king of Egypt presented Sennacherib with the choice of paying tribute or of
helping to build a castle in the air. Ahikar answered the challenge by
employing an eagle carrying two boys into the air, with the boys urging the
Egyptians to bring up to them bricks and mortar so that they could commence
building. Since nothing was delivered, no fault could attach to the builders.
Ahikar was restored to high position; Naban was punished.
AHIKAR, BOOK OF. An
oriental wisdom book of proverbs and fables, prefaced by a narrative
introduction about the sage Ahikar (See above entry). Another version has the executioners coming
to Ahikar's estate and Ahikar dissuading them from the execution by recalling Ahikar’s
past protection of the executioner.
AE-2
There is reason to believe that the
Aramaic book is derived from an Assyrian work.
In its present, Aramaic form it cannot be older than around 500 B.
C. The fables of Aesop were drawn from
Ahikar, and the story of Ahikar was adapted for the “life” of Aesop. The book of Tobit is familiar with the story
of Ahikar.
AHITUB ( אהיטוב) An
ancestor of Judith.
AHRIMAN The
designation in its Middle Persian form, of the spirit or principle of evil in
Zoroastrianism; he is the counterpart and opponent of Ormuzd (Ahura-Mazda).
AHURA-MAZDA (a hoo ra ma zda) or ORMUZD (or moozd)
The highest divine entity in Zarathushtra's teachings, the greatest of the
Persian gods. His chief opponent is
Ahriman.
AKRABATTENE (Akrabatthnh) A fortress on the frontier of Judea
and Idumea near the Akrabbim (See Akrabbim entry in main section of Dictionary),
where Judas won a victory over the Idumeans.
ALCIMUS (אליקים; God sets up)
A renegade Jew who in Maccabean times, schemed with Demetrius to
have himself restored to the high priesthood.
Alcimus,
aspiring to his old position, assembled a group of malcontents and told King
Demetrius that Judas Maccabeus had destroyed all the king's friends and brought
ruin upon the land. Alcimus was restored
to the priesthood and went with the troops commanded by Bacchides, sent to
punish Judas. Sixty Jews who sought
peace were treacherously slain by these troops.
Alcimus again “brought wicked charges,” and Nicanor was sent with a
large force, whom Judas met and overcame in the battle of Capharsalama. Alcimus and Bacchides went out once more,
and this time slew Judas at the battle of Elasa.
Alcimus
then set about to tear down the work of the prophets; he gave orders to tear
down a wall that was the barrier that separated the Court of the Gentiles from
the inner court reserved for Jews alone.
Shortly after starting this project, Alcimus was stricken; his mouth was
stopped, he was paralyzed and died in great agony.
ALEMA (Alema) One of six Palestinian cities in Greek Gilead, where
Jews had been made prisoners by the Gentile inhabitants. It has been identified with the modern Alma,
about 13km southwest of Bosor.
ALEXANDER (AlexandroV ) 1. Alexander
III of Macedon, a hero of the ancient world; known as Alexander the Great. He was the son of Phillip II of Macedon, born
in 356 B.C. He was taught by Aristotle,
and succeeded to Philip's throne by assassinating his father in 336 B.C. Alexander went on an 11 year expedition
against Persia that was a stunning success, but from which he never returned to
Macedon.
He
beat the Persian emperor at Granicus (334) and Issus (333); this brought him as
far as Asia Minor. He went through Syria
and Palestine and conquered Egypt (331).
He subdued Darius, and advanced through Mesopotamia and the Persian
Empire as far as the Indus River. His
troops, gone 8 years from home, revolted at the idea of more campaigning in
India. In 323, at the age of 33, he died of a fever in Babylon.
When Alexander was besieging Tyre, he
ordered the Jews to support with troops and provisions. The high priest at first refused out of
loyalty to Persia, but he had a dream which changed his mind, and he greeted
Alexander as a victor. The king is said
to have bowed down before the divine name.
He worshipped at the temple at Jerusalem and granted the Jews some
autonomy, and thus cultivating the loyalty of the Jews before he ventured out
on the conquest of Egypt.
Alexander
included Palestine in a province known as Coele-Syria under a governor
Andromachus, who was killed by the people in his headquarter city of Samaria
for granting the Jews too many privileges. Alexander subdued the city and
transported the entire population to Egypt.
With these people he founded the great city of Alexandria in 331, as
well as settling many Jews there and allowing them considerable privileges.
AE-3
In so short a life Alexander changed the
entire map, culture, and language of his world.
Not least among the various kinds of influence he had was the
Hellenization, the impact of Greek culture, language, and ideals, on later
Jewish and Christian thought and culture.
Jews heavily influenced by Greek culture were the ones who translated
the Old Testament into Greek and who had a great deal of influence on later
versions of the Bible and the New Testament, which first came to us in Greek.
2. Alexander Balas, an upstart king of Syria
during in the Maccabean period, a low-born Greek who assumed the name
Alexander and the title Epiphanes. He
prepared to seize the throne from Demetrius in 153 B.C. He got help from the Egyptian, Pergamum, and
Cappadocian kings, and encouragement from the Roman Senate, who wished to
weaken the Syrian state with internal strife. He also gained the assistance of
Jonathan Maccabeus by nominating him high priest in Jerusalem and giving him
the governorship of Judea after he won.
Balas became the incompetent and
self-indulgent ruler of the kingdom of Syria from 150 to 145 B.C. His own soldiers deserted him, and his own
father-in-law turned against him. He was
either slain in battle or assassinated in Arabia. The Jews regarded Balas with some favor for
the simple reason that they achieved a measure of self-government and freedom.
The
city was laid on an oblong plan, with main streets intersecting at right
angles. A viaduct almost a mile long
connected the mainland with an island offshore and divided the bay back of the
island into two distinct harbors, of which the western harbor continues to be
very useful today.
The
best vantage point of the city is from Pharos, the towering lighthouse at the
entrance of the Great or Eastern Harbor.
Closest to the Pharos lies the port itself, around which the royal or
governmental quarter extended in theater-like fashion. To the left of the Pharos, the palace area
spread over Cape Lochias and the adjoining shore land. In the center stood the monumental theater
and the gleaming Caesareum. Matching and
balancing the palace precinct on the right was the Museum with its great
library. Nearby, at almost the center of
the city was the famed Soma or Sema, where the relics of Alexander the Great
were superbly enshrined. The highpoint
of the city was a cone-shaped, park-like hill, the Paneum, consecrated to the
god of natural life.
The
western and native quarter of Alexandria was where the original Egyptian
village of Rhakotis overlooked the Western or Eunostos Harbor. The ancient acropolis stood there; it became
the Serapeum, which was a popular pilgrimage center for devout pagans. Pompey's Pillar marks the place today. Directly behind the city, on Lake Mareotis,
was the Egyptian port of Alexandria. It was a far busier port than either of
the other two on the Mediterranean
sea , because the Mareotis
haven was also the oriental harbor.
During
the reign of Augustus there were great institutions and buildings crowded close
together in this city that represented Greek culture, imperial government,
polytheistic religion, world-wide commerce, and local industry. It is only natural the ecumenical mix of
Alexandria would give rise to several religious and cultural trends in the
history of thought and religion. Three
schools of thought are of interest to biblical students: the university of Greek culture in the Museum
and libraries of Alexandria; the interpretation of the Torah by Greek-speaking
Jews in the synagogues of the city; and finally, the Christian school of
Alexandria.
The earliest of the Greeks ruling Egypt wanted
very much to make their capital the cultural focus of the Greco-oriental
world. Scholars of Alexandria
concentrated on establishing dependable, critical texts of standard Greek
works, using textual and literary criticism among other methods. A notable part of interpretation was the treatment
of every character and place as symbolic of something else. The Greeks also revolutionized science by the
analytical breakup of generalized philosophy into specialized fields of science
and mathematics.
The
Jews formed a singular ethnic group in the population of Alexandria, but they
could not remain isolated from the language, culture, and business of their
neighbors. They translated their Hebrew
Bible into Greek and produced the most
AE-4
abundant Semitic-Hellenistic literature
known. These works defended Jews and
Judaism against the sharp criticism of Gentiles and commended their religion
and their way of life to serious-minded Gentile God-fearers.
Some
Jewish writers, like Philo Judeus, chose to blend Greek philosophy with Jewish
religious thought. Philo was certain that the monotheistic God of Israel was
the one God of the philosophers also, and that the teachings of Hebrew
scripture equated with the ethics and ideologies of Greek philosophy. Philo's favorite method was seeing everything
as a symbol for something else. He
freely mixed literal and symbolic interpretation in his vast number of
writings.
The
Christian oral instruction school was started after the Christian Gnostic
school and was more closely attached to church than it was. It was headed by great teachers, Pantaenus,
Clement, and Origen among them. Student
fees were not charged but were voluntarily offered and accepted. The school is credited with advancing the
methods of interpreting scripture. Clement and Origen saw a 3-fold meaning in
scripture: literal or historical; moral implication; and spiritual
meaning. They also looked for symbolic
meaning in scripture.
The
Old and New Testament paid very little attention to Alexandria. The height of its literary productivity was
too late to get Jewish attention and too soon to get Christian notice. The New Testament does mention the ships and
Jews of Alexandria. Stephen debated with the Jews of Alexandria, and the
well-known Apollos was native to Alexandria, an eloquent man and well versed
in the scripture. Alexandrian ships are
mentioned twice, including the one that took Paul from Malta to Rome. They handled most of the shipping between
Alexandria and Rome.
ANAEL
(Anahl) Brother
of Tobit. Anael's son Ahikar served as Sennacherib's cupbearer, accountant, and
chief administrator.
ANANIAS 1. The
father of Azariah, the name that the angel Raphael went by and gave to Tobit's
father.
2. One of the ancestors of Judith.
ANANIEL ( הננאל) Tobit's
grandfather.
ANASIB (Anaseib) The progenitor of a group of priests who returned from
the Exile with Zerubbabel.
ANDRONICUS (AndronikoV, conqueror of men)
1. An official left in charge
of Antioch while Antiochus Epiphanes went on a political mission. He was bribed into executing the legitimate
high priest Onias, and was executed by Antiochus upon his return. 2. An
officer left in command of Gerizim by Antiochus after he had quelled the Judean
disorders arising from rumors of his death during his second invasion of Egypt.
ANNA
(Anna, grace) 1. The
wife of Tobit. She supported him during
his blindness and played a role similar to that of the father in the story of
the prodigal son.
The
value of the site was early recognized, and it was occupied by traders from
early historic times. After the
conquests of Alexander the Great, one of his generals, Seleucus I founded
Antioch in 300 B.C. From the first, the
city had a mixed population of Macedonians, Greek, and native Syrians, plus a
colony of Jewish veterans of Seleucus army. It became a capital of the
Seleucid dynasty and a wealthy and sophisticated metropolis in which Greek
civilization flourished and came into contact with oriental culture and
religion. The exports of Syria Antioch Italy Gaul .
AE-5
With
the Roman occupation of Syria in 64 B.C., Antioch became the capital and the
military headquarters of the new province of Syria. The city was enlarged and beautified along
Roman lines by Julius Caesar, Augustus, and Tiberius, with the assistance of
King Herod. The Romans improved the road
system and developed the seaport Seleucia Pieria, so that communications of
Antioch with Syria, Palestine, and the western Mediterranean were made more
rapid and secure. The ancient and large
Jewish colony enjoyed good standing in the community and attracted a number of
Gentiles who found Jewish monotheism and ethics more satisfying than the
beliefs offered by the Greek and oriental philosophies and religions. We do not hear that the early Christian
preachers had to contend with Jewish fanatics as they did in Jerusalem. Antioch must have enjoyed a degree of public
order which was not possible in a turbulent place like Jerusalem.
ANTIOCHIS (AntiocoV) A concubine of Antiochus IV who received two cities as
a gift from him. The inhabitants of the
two cities, Tarsus and Mallus were angered by the offer.
ANTIOCHUS (AntiocoV , opposer) A
favorite name among the kings of the Seleucid dynasty of Syria
1. Antiochus I (280-261 B.C.). He was born in 324 B.C. the son of Seleucus
Nicator, one of the generals of Alexander the Great. The son succeeded his father in 280 B.C.,
acquired the surname Soter (deliverer) for victories over the Gauls and the
Celts. He tried but failed to take
Palestine from the Ptolemaic dynasty. He
was slain in battle in 261 B.C.
2. Antiochus
II (261-246 B.C.), surnamed Theos (god).
Son of Antiochus I, he married his half-sister, Laodice. He was immoral, drunken, and ruled by
favorites. Ptolemy Philadelphus attacked
and took some ports in Asia Minor, and forced Antiochus to put away his wife
(sister) and marry Ptolemy's daughter, Berenice. It is said that Laodice poisoned Antiochus,
and that her eldest son Seleucus II succeeded him. 3. Antiochus III (223-187 B.C.), surnamed
the Great. As the younger son of
Seleucus II, he succeeded his older brother Seleucus III. He was only 20 when he took the throne and
declared war on Egypt. He fought in nearby Egypt and Media, and fought battles
in far away India and near the Caspian Sea, where he gained the title “the
Great.” He lost Palestine when Egypt
defeated him at Raphia. He regained
Judea and forced the Egyptians out by defeating Scopas at Panium in 198. This marked the beginning of the worst
persecution the Jews had ever yet endured. In his treaty with Ptolemy
Epiphanes, Antiochus gave his daughter to Ptolemy in marriage, along with the
revenues of Coele-Syria (Palestine). His
last years were busy with wars; in the last one he was defeated by the Roman
general Scipio Asiaticus at the Battle of Magnesia (190 B.C.), and was killed
in a rebellion in 187. The prophet
Daniel refers to this Antiochus in Daniel 11.
4. Antiochus IV (175-164 B.C.), surnamed
Epiphanes (the Manifest (God)). He was
the younger son of Antiochus III and he followed his brother Seleucus
Philopater on the throne, even though Seleucus' son was supposed to be king. He was known as one of the cruelest tyrants
of all time, enterprising like his father, yet furious and rash almost to the
point of madness. It was one of his
major aims to obtain unity by spreading the movement of converting his subjects
to Greek culture.
In
a dispute over the high priesthood in Jerusalem, Antiochus awarded the position
to the Greek-speaking Jason, who paid Antiochus a large sum of money. He was replaced by Menelaus, who promised
even more money. Jason attacked
Jerusalem in 170 B.C., when he thought Antiochus was dead. The enraged king came back, savagely attacked
Jerusalem and removed the temple treasure.
In 168 B.C., when Rome Egypt Palestine Jerusalem
Antiochus now issued his famous edict to
the effect that throughout his kingdom all peoples should have one religion,
law, and custom. The king's
representative went to the village of Modin, where he was killed by the priest
Mattathias, who fled to the hills, persuaded pious Jews to resist; he was
joined by the Hasidim. Mattathias died
in 166, and his son Judas Maccabeus took over as leader of the resistance; he
defeated Apollonius, Seron, Ptolemy, Nicanor, Gorgias, and Lysias
AE-6
in various
battles. Antiochus was busy elsewhere,
with revolts in Parthia and Armenia.
Judas restored the temple in Jerusalem to its former glory and resumed
daily sacrifices in 165 B.C., with Antiochus' garrison still in control of the
citadel nearby. Judas' success drove
Epiphanes to further madness, but he was powerless to restrain Judas. Antiochus retreated to the east, and it was
said that he became really mad in Persia just before he died there. The books
of Daniel and Maccabees reflect the horror with which pious Jews regarded him.
5. Antiochus V (164-162 B.C.), Eupator (born
of a noble father). He became king while
still a child; Lysias was his guardian. Together they went to the relief of
besieged Jerusalem and besieged it in turn. Lysias made peace and concessions
to religious freedom which were soon broken.
A little later both Antiochus and Lysias were betrayed into the hands of
Demetrius Soter, who ought to have succeeded to the throne before Antiochus'
father. They were put to death in 162
B.C.
6. Antiochus
VI (145-142 B.C.), surnamed Epiphanes Dionysus; he was Alexander Balas’ son and
no relation to the other Antiochus. He
was set up as a claimant to the throne of Syria in 145 B.C. by Trypho. He was supported by the generals and Jonathon
in Jerusalem, but later assassinated by Trypho, who became king.
7. Antiochus VII (138-129 B.C.), surnamed
Sidetes; he was the brother of Demetrius Soter.
He invaded Judea in 135 B.C. and razed part of the walls of Jerusalem,
forcing John Hyrcanus to submit. He died
while fighting in 129 B.C.
8. Antiochus
VIII (125-96 B.C.), nicknamed Grypus (hook-nosed); he was the second son of
Demetrius II. At first he reigned with
his mother, Cleopatra Thea; his position was later challenged by his half
brother.
9. Antiochus
IX (116-95 B.C.); surnamed Cyzicenus, also known as Philopater; he was the half
brother of Antiochus Grypus. He
challenged Grypus' power and they ended up ruling a partitioned Syria. Jews made rapid progress toward complete
independence under these conditions.
10. Antiochus X (94-83 B.C.); he was the son
of Cyzicenus. He expelled Seleucus VI,
the son of Grypus. This Antiochus
married Selene, who was once married to both Grypus and Cyzicenus (Antiochus VIII and IX) in succession. Antiochus X had to contend with opposition to
his reign from both Antiochus XI and XII, who were both sons of Grypus; he was
finally expelled and killed in battle.
11. Antiochus XIII (69-65 B.C.), commonly
called Asiaticus; he was the son of Antiochus X and Selene. He was allowed to rule by the Romans, who
ended the Armenian king's 14 year reign over Syria. In 63 B.C., the Roman commander Pompey, made
Syria a Roman province and brought the Seleucid dynasty to its end.
ANTIPATER (AntipatroV) Son of Jason, designated to go with Numenius son of
Antiochus to the Roman as envoys of the Jews to renew the alliance.
APAME
A royal Persian concubine
cited by the third page in the story of the three youths in the court of
Darius, as evidence of the superior power of women over men.
APHAIREMA (Afairema) One of the three city/districts of Samaria Bethel
APOLLONIUS (ApollwnioV ) 1. A native of Tarsus
2. Governor of Coele-Syria under Alexander
Balas. Without the approval of
Alexander, Apollonius challenged Jonathan to battle, with disastrous results,
losing Joppa and having Ashdod burned in the process.
3. General of the armies of Samaria who put
together a large force of Gentiles to fight Israel. He pretended to have peaceful
intentions. He slaughtered all those who
came to watch his army parade by. Judas
defeated him in battle, and humiliated Apollonius by taking his sword; Judas
used it the rest of his life. It is possible
that he was sent by Antiochus Epiphanes to represent him at the coronation
Ptolemy Philometor.
4. Son
of Gennaeus, and one of the district governors in Palestine; He didn't let the
citizens live in peace.
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APOLLOPHANES (ApolloranhV ) One of three Syrians slain by the army of Judas
Maccabeus.
APOLLYON (Apolluwn, destroyer) Greek name of the angel of the
bottomless pit, equivalent to the Hebrew Abaddon. He was king of the locust with the power to
harm those not marked by God’s seal in Revelation.
APPHUS (Apfous, cunning) A
nickname given to Jonathan Maccabee, one Mattathias' five sons.
ARABIANS (ערב, nomad. See
also the Biblical section entry )
In the Apocrypha, the main group of Arabians is the Nabateans. These Nabateans were the only northern
Arabians who established a civilization comparable with those in the south,
with Petra as the center of their kingdom, stretching from the Red Sea to
beyond Damascus and deeply into Arabia.
Their names reveal them as Arabs, but they adopted Aramaic as their
literary language, so that it became the source of the later Arabic
script.
Their
first recorded king is Harethath I around 169 B.C., who ruled at the same time
as the Greek ruler of Syria Antiochus Epiphanes and the Jewish high priest
Jason. The Maccabees were in friendly
relations with them, but the Hasmoneans quarreled with them. Under Aretas III (87-62 B.C.), their kingdom
reached its greatest expansion, and their culture became Greek. The king intervened in Jewish affairs, and
when war broke out between the Romans and the Parthians, the Nabateans had
difficulty in keeping friendly with both sides.
The Arabs Timotheus hired against Judas Maccebeus may have been
nondescript Beduin. Sylleus, who brought disaster on the Roman expedition in
Arabia under Aelius Gallus in 25 B.C., was certainly a Nabatean.
ARADUS (AradoV) A place mentioned in a list of various places to which
letters were sent about the Jews.
ARBELA (Arbhla) A site along Bacchide's invasion route from Syria;
most likely a district of caves known as Khirbet Irbid, by the Wadi el-Hamam
west of the Sea of Galilee; it was a refuge for rebels and brigands.
ARDAT A field where Ezra received a vision.
ARETAS (AretaV, goodness, excellence) The Aretas of Maccabean times is the
first known Nabatean (Arabic) ruler. The
high priest Jason, acting on false rumors of Antiochus' death, undertook by
violent measures to gain control of the government. When the conspiracy failed, he fled to Aretas
and was imprisoned. Other references
indicate that the Nabateans were friendly to the Maccabean party. Supported by Aretas, Herod Antipas and the
priest Hyrcanus led an expedition against Aristobulus and gained a temporary
victory. The Romans sided with Aristobulus
and the army of Aretas and Hyrcanus was badly beaten at Papyron.
ARISTEAS The
pretended author of a small Greek book addressed to “his brother”
Philocrates. He pretends to be an
eyewitness and tells the series of events connected with the first Greek
version of the Old Testament.
Outline of "To Philocrates"
I. Introductory address to
Philocrates
II.
Demetrius of Phalerum proposes to Ptolemy to have the Torah
translated into Greek, and added to Alexandrian library. The high
translated into Greek, and added to Alexandrian library. The high
priest Eleazar is asked to send 72
competent translators.
III. Aristeas goes to Jerusalem
of
Jewish law.
IV. The arrival of the translators in Alexandria
respect and joy by Ptolemy.
V.
The 7 banquets in 7 nights and 72 questions of the king, one to each
translator.
VI. The translation is carried out on the island of Pharos
the Septuagint and is approved by the
Alexandrian Jews and the king.
VII.
Epilogue
The
book has for centuries been recognized as a literary fiction. The writer's demonstration of Jewish
superiority, his use of the Septuagint before it was written, and “eyewitness”
accounts that were historical and factually inaccurate show him to be a Jew,
rather than the Greek he claims to be, and not an eyewitness. His work
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is dated anywhere from 200 B.C.- 50
A.D. The most likely date is around 100
B.C. The story of the translation offers
a slender frame for a number of chapters which are by no means essential to it
and which may have been added to the basic story later.
Besides
the Greek Old Testament that is the subject of this writing, “To Philocrates”
itself is the only complete surviving example of the Greek-Jewish literature of
this era. Our present-day focus is
mainly on the framework of Aristeas' tale.
The story of the 72 translators has been repeated, embroidered, and
amplified by successive Jewish and Christian writers. It retains its value as an example of the
documents of its age, but it has lost the quality of a historical report.
ARISTOBULUS (AristobouloV) 1. A
teacher of Ptolemy to whom Judas the Maccabee sent letters, and possibly a
Greco-Jewish philosopher. 2. Aristobulus I, the oldest son of John
Hyrcanus, and the first of the Hasmonean line to claim the title of king. He reigned only one year (104-103 B.C.).
3. Aristobulus II, the younger son of
Alexander Janneus and Salome Alexandra.
He tried to seize the throne from his brother and the rightful heir,
Hyrcanus II, who held the throne only three months by the time Aristobulus
defeated him. Hyrcanus fled to the
Nabatean king Aretas, who thereupon waged war on Aristobulus and defeated
him. Both Hyrcanus and Aristobulus
appealed and offered gifts to Rome for its support. Scaurus of Rome elected to support
Aristobulus, and defeated Hyrcanus and Aretas in battle.
The two brothers and a third group that
opposed them both all appealed again to Rome in the person of Pompey. After a series of gambits, Pompey seized
Aristobulus, besieged Jerusalem and captured it, thus ending Jewish independence (63 B.C.);
Aristobulus was taken to Rome. His son
Alexander stayed behind and almost succeeded in overthrowing the Roman governor
Gabinius.
Aristobulus
escaped from Rome and, like his son was almost successful. He returned to Rome as a prisoner a second
time. After civil war broke out in Rome
between Caesar and Pompey, Caesar liberated Aristobulus, so as to send him to
Syria against Pompey's forces.
Aristobulus was poisoned in Rome by partisans of Pompey in 49 B.C.
4. The last prominent male of the Hasmonean
line; a grandson of Aristobulus II and a brother of Mariamne, Herod the
Great's wife. He was appointed high
priest by Herod the Great at the age of 17 or 18. He was so popular with the people that Herod
had him drowned around 35 B.C.
5. The younger of two sons born to Herod the
Great by the Hasmonean Mariamne. Herod
had Mariamne executed in 29 B.C. Herod
was torn between affection for his two sons and fear that they would avenge
their mother's death. Herod's sister and
brother plotted against the youths, and involved another son by Herod's first
wife. In 12 B.C., Aristobulus and
Alexander were charged with attempted murder of their father, were temporarily
reconciled with their father, and finally in 7 B.C. were condemned to death and
strangled.
6. Son of entry 5 above. Little is known of him. He plotted against his brother Herod Agrippa,
and pled against erecting a statue of Caligula in the temple at Jerusalem. (See also the Biblical entry.)
ARIUS
(AreioV ) The king of
the Spartans who wrote a letter to the high priest Onias, stating that the
Spartans were your brethren. Jonathan
Maccabee later reminded the Spartans of this fact.
AROM
(Arom) Ancestor
of a family who returned from exile with Zerubbabel.
ARPHAXAD (Arfaxad) A king of the Medes, otherwise unknown to history.
ARSACES (ArsakhV ) The title assumed by the Parthian (Persian)
kings in honor of the founder of the
Arsacidae dynasty around 250 B.C.
There were about 30 Arcases, among them Tiridates, Mithridates I
& II.
ASARAMEL (asaramel) The meaning of this word or phrase depends on how the
Hebrew letters are separated and possible copying errors. It could mean “in the congregation of Israel”;
it could mean “the court of the people of God,” or “the prince of the people of
God.” (i.e. either a place name or an
honorific title).
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ASHTEROTH-KARNAIM (קרנים עשתרות, twin peaks
near Ashteroth) An important
fortress city in Gilead, about 32 km east of the Sea of Galilee and 4.8 km
north of Ashteroth. In the postexilic
period the city, known as Carnaim or Carnion, was settled both by Jews and by
Greeks. It was considered a very strong
fortress, but it was captured and destroyed by Judas Maccabee after the Jews
there had appealed to him for rescue. (See also the Biblical entry.)
ASIA (Asia) This province possessed a high degree of culture and
intellectual activity going back to the days of early Greek cities like the two
Magnesias, Miletus, and Tralles along the coast, long before the days of Alexander
the Great. After Alexander, these Greek
foundations multiplied, and the interior absorbed Greek culture and language,
which became predominant thereafter. The
province was never dominated by any single city. The religion of Asia included a great variety
of cults and gods, from the native Anatolian ones, to Greek and Roman, to a
mixture of the three.
In
the Apocrypha, the word is used of the kingdom of the Seleucids. The Romans conquered what came to be the
province of Asia in the 100s B. C. When
Attalus III died in 133 B. C., he willed his kingdom to Rome. The province included the western parts of Asia
Minor and many of the islands of the Aegean, including Rhodes and Patmos. The province was enlarged in 116 B.C., with
the addition of Greater Phrygia. It did
not have a firm eastern border, and contained many free cities and temple
states. Around 285 A.D., the province
was greatly reduced in size and restricted to the coastal areas and the western
valleys.
The
first capital of this province was Pergamum, the old Attalid capital. By the time of Augustus, the capital was
changed to Ephesus. Asia was a
senatorial province and as such was ruled by a governor with the title of
proconsul, the term of which usually lasted one year. The shortness of their terms encouraged
provincial officials to greedily exploit the wealth of the province. Asia welcomed Augustus and became very loyal
to him, because he brought relative peace and prosperity, as well as
responsible and stable administrations.
In 29 B.C., Augustus granted the Asian request that he be worshipped as
a god, but only by non-Romans. (See also the Biblical entry.)
ASIEL (עשיאל, may God be
what he's made of) 1. A scribe who served Ezra.
2. An ancestor of Tobit and a Naphtalite (See also the Biblical entry.)
ASMODEUS (AsmodeuV) An evil being described in later Jewish tradition as “king
of the demons”; Asmodeus plays a leading role in the book of Tobit. Tobit was to be Sarah's eighth husband. Asmodeus desired her and slayed her first
seven husbands on the wedding night.
Tobit drives Asmodeus away and marries Sarah. (See
also the Biblical Entry.)
ASPHAR (Asfar) A pool in the desert; the scene of a camp of Jonathan
and Simon Maccabee.
ASUR (Asour) The name
of an ancestor taken by a family of temple servants listed among the returned
exiles in I Esdras.
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ATHENOBIUS (AqhnobioV
) Antiochus VII Sidetes’ courtier, sent by Antiochus to Simon the high
priest.
ATTALUS (AttaloV ) The name borne by 3 kings of Pergamum
AUGUSTUS (AugoustoV; born September 23, 63 B.C. , died August 19, 14 A.D. ) The title given by the Roman Senate on January 16, 27
B.C. to Gaius Julius Caesar
Octavianus, founder of the Roman
Empire and ruler of the
Mediterranean world at the time of Jesus' birth. The title means “reverend” and in Greek bears
implications of divinity. Others used
the title, but as a name it refers to its most famous bearer.
Gaius
was from a family of senatorial rank, and he met his great-uncle Julius Caesar
in 46 B.C. The next year the dictator
adopted him in his will but did not make this fact public. After Caesar's murder and the reading of his
will in 44 B. C., Gaius added “Julius Caesar” to his name. He first broke with Mark Antony and appealed
to Caesar's troops.
Supported
halfheartedly by the Senate, he soon broke with it, and in 43 he occupied
Rome. He joined in a “triumvirate” with
Antony and Lepidus, and put to death 300 senators and 200 landed gentry or
knights. They defeated the forces of
Caesar's murderer, Brutus. Antony and
Octavian sent Lepidus off to Africa, where he died in 13 or 12 B.C, and
defeated the forces of an old-fashioned republican general in Sicily.
Antony married Octavian's sister
Octavia. From 41-36, Antony fought
against the Parthians until he was beaten back and retired to Alexandria. He fell under the spell of Cleopatra VII,
queen of Egypt and former mistress of Caesar.
He promised her and her children territories in the East which really
belonged to foreign kings and to Rome.
After 35, he abandoned Octavia; in 33 he married Cleopatra; in 32 he
divorced Octavia.
Octavian
was able to persuade the Senate to declare war on Cleopatra. Antony and Cleopatra advanced as far as the
bay of Actium. Almost all of Antony's
fleet was captured, and in 30, Octavian invaded Egypt; both Antony and
Cleopatra committed suicide and Egypt became a Roman province.
Octavian
had promised in 36 that he would restore the republic, but since turning over
70 legions now under arms over to the Senate would only lead to more trouble,
he retained control over the army and foreign affairs. The operation of civil government was turned
over to a much smaller Senate. In 27, he
offered to resign his various offices; the Senate refused his offer and instead
voted him the title “Augustus.” The
Senate then controlled Rome, Italy, and all the secure provinces.
Augustus
had pro-consular authority over those provinces guarded by legions; their
governors were under his direct authority.
He had the power to convene the Senate, was supreme criminal judge of
the state, and had the power to make binding treaties with foreign powers. Augustus carefully observed the forms of
republican rule, consulted the Senate, and avoided the trappings of
royalty. Toward the end of his long
life, he made his stepson and son-in-law Tiberius to become regent; when he
died Tiberius succeeded him.
Among
his construction projects were many temples; in 28 B.C. he repaired eighty-two
temples of the gods in the city of Rome.
In the provinces, he encouraged the building of temples to “Rome and
Augustus.” He was unenthusiastic about
any foreign cult except those of the Greeks.
Among Romans of every class there was
AE-11
strong admiration for him as the
bringer of peace and prosperity to the inhabited world. He died in August of 14 A.D. and was deified
by the Senate a month later. Popular, determined, fortunate, and long-lived,
Augustus left a deep impression on the empire which he founded, and it followed
the general lines he had established for the succeeding three centuries. No later emperor was remembered so favorably.
AURANUS (AuranoV ) Leader of an insurrection in Jerusalem
AVARAN (Auaran, beast-sticker)
Epithet or surname of Eleazar, fourth son of Mattathias. He died heroically at Beth-Zechariah.
AVESTA. The body of
preachings of Zarathushtra and teachings of the Zoroastrian religion, written
in a language known as Avestan, which is part of the Iranian language
group.
The
Avesta became known to the Western world only at the end of the 1700s through
the efforts of the Frenchman Anquetil Duperron.
Within the Avesta several groups of writings are to be distinguished:
Yasna, formulas of prayer and liturgy written in a language slightly
different from the rest of the Avesta; Vispered, additions to Yasna, with
more prayers and formulas; Yasht, sacrificial hymns addressed to gods; Videvdat,
law; Nirangistan, rituals; and Hadoxt Nask, a fragmentary text on
the fate of the soul after death. None
of these groups of texts is complete, and similarities with Sanskrit writings
from 1200 to 900 B.C. suggests an ancient and common origin for these two
groups of writings. These works greatly
influenced the Persian religion, which in turn had an influence on the Jewish
exiles.
AZARIAH (עזריה, Yahu has helped) 1. A
priest who put away his foreign wife in the time of Ezra. 2. A
man who supported Ezra while reading the Law.
3. An officer in the army of
Judas Maccabeus. He shared command
during the absence of Judas and was badly defeated by Gorgias.
AZARIAS (AzariaV ) The name used by the disguised angel Raphael.
AZARU
(AzouroV ) Ancestor of
some who returned from the Exile.
AZETAS (AzhtaV ) An
ancestor of some who returned from the Exile with Zerubbabel. His name is not found in Ezra or Nehemiah.
B
BACCHIDES (BakcidhV ) Friend of King Demetrius I and governor of the area
west of the Euphrates . He was sent
to suppress the revolt of Judas Maccabeus and to install Alcimus as high
priest. He sought to deceive Judas. When a party of Hasidim scribes appeared
before Bacchides and Alcimus, both leaders took an oath not to harm them, and
then treacherously massacred 60 of them.
After handing the country over to Alcimus with an army, he went back to
Demetrius. When General Nicanor fell in
battle with Judas, Bacchides was sent back. He won at Arbela, and at Elasa
Judas fell in battle against Bacchides.
Bacchides
was able to dominate Judea ; he fought Jonathan on the sabbath by the Jordan
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BACE-NOR (Bakhnwr) "Bace-nor's men" seems to be identical with
the Toubiani. The meaning is obscure.
BAEAN (Baian) An unknown
tribe who ambushed people on the highway and were destroyed by Judas.
BAGOAS (BagoaV ) A eunuch in charge of Holofernes' affairs. He found
out that Judith had slain his master.
BAITERUS (BaithrouV ) Ancestors
of some 3,005 exiles who returned with Zerubbabel.
BALAMON (Balamwn) A town
near Dothan
BALBAIM (Belbaim) A town near Dothan
BANNAS (BannoV ) A Levite ancestor of some who returned from the Exile
with Zerubbabel.
BARODIS (BarwdeiV
)
A family head of the “sons
of Solomon's servants,” who returned with Zerubbabel.
BARTACUS (BartakoV
)
The father of Apame, a concubine
of Darius.
BARUCH, APOCALYPSE OF (Also
called “Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch,” and “Second Baruch) The name of Baruch is used, although it was
written long after Baruch lived (See
Biblical entry), some time after the Roman’s destruction of Jerusalem in 70
A.D. The Syriac was translated from the
Greek; the Greek, in turn is from a Hebrew original. This is a Jewish work,
based upon a number of different sources, and is mostly poetry.
Despite
its title, there is no clear-cut apocalypse involved, no two opposing
supernatural forces, no two distinct ages (the evil and temporal first, then
the good and eternal). Instead, God is
in direct control of this the present age, which will become better. There are few angels and no demons in this
writing. Considerable use is made of the
Old Testament, but there are few direct quotations. Baruch relates that the capture of Jerusalem
by the Chaldeans was revealed to him before it happened. It was a prelude to divine judgment. God also told Baruch, who was impatient for
this to occur that he must wait until all who had been destined to live should
be born. Then the Messiah would appear
and Behemoth and Leviathan would become a feast for the righteous.
In
a vision Baruch saw a mighty fountain (which symbolized the Messiah's dominion)
uproot a forest (the world’s kingdoms) save for a cedar tree (Rome) which would
be burned. A vine (the Messiah) would
continue to grow. Another symbolic
vision had 6 black waters (evil periods of history) alternating with six bright
waters (the good periods). In a letter
to the 9½ tribes he exhorts them to prepare by keeping the law, for the time of
rewards and vengeance for Israel is at hand. The wicked will suffer, while all
who use their freedom of will to live righteously will have their deeds stored
up in heavenly treasuries, and a blessed immortality.
BARUCH, BOOK OF A
little book of five chapters which tradition says was written by the son of
Neraiah, the secretary or disciple of Jeremiah and addressed to the Jews who
had been deported to Babylon
The
book itself directs that it shall be used in the liturgy of the synagogue. Most of the first third consists of a prayer
quoted freely from Daniel 9, expanded to about 54 verses. The second third begins with a short sermon
in poetry form, called “The Fountain of Wisdom,” which is based on Job 28-29.
The third division of the book is a prayer for comfort and encouragement.
Baruch
was used in Jewish worship in Upper Syria.
The Greek is very clearly a translation from the Hebrew and is also
dependent on the Greek versions of Jeremiah and Daniel. Because of similarities with other writings,
the date that the
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Book of Baruch was written in Hebrew and then translated into
Greek is set no earlier than the middle 100s B.C. The first third of the book must have been
later than 164 B.C., because of its dependence on the book of Daniel. The date of the second two-thirds of the book
are less certain, but most likely is in the late Maccabean era, roughly 76-67
B.C. This period had issues similar to those in the time of Baruch, who felt
the urgent necessity to return to God.
Israel was still threatened by past mistakes; it was a time for
contemplative prayer and literary endeavor in the manner of Baruch.
BEBAI (Bhbai) An
unidentified Israelite city whose people joined in the destruction of the
fleeing “Assyrian” forces after the death of Holofernes.
BECTILETH (Baikteilaiq, house of the killing) An unidentified plain situated in or near
northern Cilcia, reached by Holfernes and his army after a three day march from
Nineveh, nearly 480 km away. The facts
make either the location or the journey impossible. Others propose that it is a symbolic name referring
to the slaughter of the peoples named in Judith 2.
BEL AND THE DRAGON (Bhl kai Drakwn) An
addition to the book of Daniel, illustrating his wisdom as companion to
Cyrus. The title is the name of two
separate stories.
In the first story, Bel is a great statue which
devours great amounts of food and drink.
By means of a trick, Daniel reveals that it is the priests consuming the
food. King Cyrus has Bel destroyed and
the priests slain. In the second story,
Daniel refuses to worship a monstrous dragon.
He offers to, and succeeds in killing it with a mixture of hair, pitch, and
fat. The people, angered by the death of
this god, force the king to throw Daniel to the lions. He is miraculously fed by Habakkuk on the
sixth day, and on the seventh day the king removes Daniel from the den and
instead throws his enemies therein.
The
text is generally assumed to have been written around 130 B.C., after the Book
of Daniel had been accepted officially as part of the Torah. The value of the story is to stress the
absurdity of idolatry and to uphold the worship of the one true God. The dragon may be a serpent and a part of
snake-worship. There is no evidence
outside this story of such worship in Babylon, but there is snake-worship in
Egypt, which leads some scholars to believe that the story originated in Egypt.
BELMAIN (Belmain) An unidentified village in Samaria
BELNUUS (BelnouoV
)
Apparently the same as Binnui
(3)
BELSHAZZAR (בלשצר, Bel
protect the king) Son of, and
coregent with Nabonidus, the last Babylonian king. Belshazzar is of interest only as the unique
example of a crown prince who was officially recognized as co-regent. Equally unique is the fact that the crown
prince is mentioned in the prayer section of some of the inscriptions of
Nabonidus. Nothing is known about his
death from Assyrian sources.
BELTETHMUS A
title meaning chancellor of a Persian officer in Palestine
BEREA
(Berea) A place in
Judea , not certainly identified. While various versions of
the apocrypha read Be-rean, other versions have Bereth. The place might then be the present
el-Bireh, 16 km north of Jerusalem, or Beerzeth, a little over 6 km further
north.
BEROEA (Beroia) The Greek name of the Syrian city of Aleppo
BETH-DAGON (בית דגן, house (shrine) of Dagon) A temple of the god of Dagon in Ashdod
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BETH-HORON (בית הרון, house of
the height; See also the Biblical entry)
A king of Beth-horon in the time of Jacob is mention in
Jubilee. It was among the villages held
by the Jews against Holofernes, and the scene of two victories under the
leadership of Judas.
BOSOR
(bosor) One
of the Gileadite cities where Gentile citizens persecuted the Jewish residents
after the re-dedication of the temple in 165 B.C.
BOZRAH (בצרה, fortified place, sheepfold (See also the Biblical entry)) A city captured by Judas Maccabeus in the
course of his campaign in Gilead , about 97 km south of Damascus
C
CAESAR, JULIUS (kaisar, kay sar) Gaius
Julius Caesar, father of the Roman
Empire (102 (100?)
B.C.-44B.C.). He was born into a
patrician but un-influential family. He
witnessed the Civil war and was also aware of the interminable struggles for
power among various generals. He sought
office with borrowed money, and in 63 became pontifex maximus and praetor;
in 61, he became governor of Further Spain.
He formed a coalition with the powerful generals Pompey and Crassus in
59 and was elected consul. Julius was
also governor to the parts of Gaul that lay on the northern and western borders
of Italy.
Meanwhile, Crassus had been killed in
battle, and Pompey gradually became hostile toward Caesar. In January of 49, the Senate recalled Caesar,
who instead invaded Italy by crossing the River Rubicon. There were also a series of civil wars in
Spain, Macedonia, and Alexandria (where Caesar was helped by Antipater and
Hyrcanus from Jerusalem), and Africa.
From experience and observation, Caesar was well aware that the
republican form of government was finished.
Since the end of the Carthaginian Wars, the Republic had been going to
pieces. There were three fundamental causes:
a.) There was a rise in the
numbers of the urban debtor class. The
gulf between rich and poor was actually widened when the new provinces were
exploited. The equestrian class took advantage
even of reform measures in order to acquire greater wealth. By Caesar's time, class conflict was
approaching near-anarchy.
b.)
The republican form of government possessed an inherent weakness
because the Senate could only give advice to the consuls but could not compel
them to follow it; the consuls could appeal to the popular assembly, so the
power of the Senate was severely limited.
The foreign wars in which the late Republic was almost constantly
engaged in meant that the veterans were loyal to their victorious generals,
rather than the Senate.
c.) The widespread acceptance of
Greek learning from the nobility downward.
This included skeptical philosophy which resulted in the lessening of
the authority of tradition. A world
culture had come to over-throw the old Roman way of life, including Roman
religion.
These
three factors were expressed in a series of crises which a government designed
to govern a small city state was unable to meet. In 46 Julius Caesar was made
dictator for 10 years. He settled his
veterans into various colonies. He
reduced the number of persons on relief from 320,000 to 150,000; he expanded
the Senate to 900 members and showed clemency towards his former opponents.
To
be sure, Caesar regularly informed the Senate of his decisions, but their
function became purely consultative. In
February of 44, he entered upon a perpetual dictatorship. When hailed as a
king, he gave the ambiguous reply: “I am not king, but Caesar.” A few senators and those wishing to restore
the Republic, banded together to kill “the tyrant.” At a Senate meeting on the Ides (15th) of March,
they stabbed him to death with daggers. Power passed not into their hands, but
into the hands of Mark Antony, Lepidus, and his heir Octavius.
AE-15
Caesar himself can hardly be called a
statesman but was a brilliant general who possessed remarkable political
ability in advancing himself. Believing
in Fortune rather than in the gods, he took advantage of the weakness of the
Republic to provide himself with supreme power.
Due to the anarchy produced by senatorial rule, his actions were a
combination of ambition and necessity.
CALLISTHENES (kallisqenhV
) A Syrian who came with General Nicanor
against Judas Maccabeus. The Jews burned
Callisthenes to death because he had helped set fire to the temple gates.
CAPHARSALAMA (cafarsalama)
The
scene of an engagement between Judas and Nicanor which resulted in a victory
for the Jewish forces. The place is
perhaps where modern Khirbet Selma is, about 9.6 km northwest of Jerusalem.
CARABASION (Karabaseiwn)
One
of the Israelites who put away their foreign wives and children.
CARMONIANS A people from Carmania, a province of ancient Persia Persian Gulf . Apparently
they had a devastating effect on some Assyrian land. They joined battle against the “nations of
the dragons of Arabia,” and were eventually defeated by Odenathus and his brave
wife Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra.
CASPIN (kaspin)
A
strongly fortified town of mixed population taken by Judas, who slaughtered many
people. Two possibilities for its location are about 14 km east of the Sea of
Galilee, or in the Hauran Plain.
CAT
(ailouroV (ail oo ros)) A domesticated carnivorous mammal, belong
to the feline family. The absence of
references to the cat in both the Old and New Testament reflect the fact that
the cat was not commonly known or kept as a pet in Western Asia in the biblical
period. The earliest Jewish reference to
the cat is in the Apocrypha (Letter of Jeremiah 22). It was probably first domesticated in Egypt,
where it had a place in the religious practices of the country. Bastet was their cat-goddess, and the cat was
also closely associated with the sun god Re.
CATHUA (kaqoua) Head of a family of temple servants who returned with
Zerubbabel. His name is omitted in the parallel accounts of Ezra and Nehemiah.
CAVE
(מערה, meh aw raw; sphlaion, spay lah yon) Natural and
artificial caves are numerous in the limestone and sandstone hills of Palestine
and the eastern Jordan area and are frequently mentioned as places of residence,
refuge, and burial.
Thousands
of caves have been discovered as a result of archaeological exploration. The excavation of large caves, such as those
located between Bethlehem and the Dead Sea, and on Mount Carmel, has demonstrated
that they were occupied in some cases from the Stone Age to the present.
Natural and arti-ficial caves used as tombs have been found in Gezer,
Beth-shemesh, Jerusalem,
AE-16
Megiddo, etc. Among the caves which date from later
periods are those west of the Dead
Sea , occupied as early as
the Chalcolithic period but also as a refuge for Jewish soldiers in the time of
Bar Cocheba, and those near the northwest end of the Dead Sea , where the Dead Sea Scrolls were stored. (See also the Biblical entry
on Cave and Dead Sea Scrolls).
CENDEBEUS (kendebaioV
)
Chief commander of the coastal
country, appointed by King Antiochus to battle against Judea . John Hyrcanus, along with his brother Judas,
were sent into battle against Cendebeus.
John crossed into the plain near Modin, where he saw Cendebeus'
army. He crossed the mountain stream and
with his army put Cendebeus to flight.
CHABRIS (CabriV ) Son of
Gothoniel, and one of the elders of Bethulia; Judith sent her request for help
to him.
CHADIASANS (Cadiasai) A clan of exiles who returned with Zerubbabel. Their origins may be connected with the
cities of Kadesh, Hadashah, or Adasa.
CHAEREAS (CaireaV
)
An Ammonite commander during
the Maccabean period. When Gazara, which
he held, fell to the Jews, he was slain by Judas Maccabeus.
CHALPHI (Calfei) Father of one of the Judas of the OT and one of the
commanders in Jonathan's army.
CHAPHENATHA (Cafenaqa)
A place unknown today, just outside
Jerusalem. Here the walls of the city
had fallen down, and Judas Maccabeus built them up.
CHARAX (Caraka (kar ak ah))
A place unknown today, east of the Jordan, where a colony of Jews
existed in the period of Judas Maccabee.
CHARMIS (CarmeiV
) Melchiel’s son; one of the 3 city magistrates of Bethulia to whom
Judith appealed for aid.
CHASPHO (Casfw) A city in Gilead stormed and taken by Judas Maccabee,
who released the Jews held captive there by the Syrians. It is probably the same as Caspin, east of
the Sea Galilee.
CHELLEANS (Celeoi (kel ay oy))
A people who lived north of the home of the Ishmaelites. They have been identified with the ancient
Cholle between Palmyra and Euphrates River.
CHELOUS (CelouV ) One of
three cities in southern Palestine named in Judith 1. It lay on one of the
roads leading south from Jerusalem toward Egypt and on a caravan route between
Gaza and Edom.
CHEZIB (כזיב) 1. Head of a family of temple servants at the return of
the exiles, according to I Esdras 5. The
name is not mention in the corresponding canonical list in the Old
Testament.
CHOBA (Cwba)
One
of the northern villages in Palestine, which rallied to the fortification of
the mountain passes against the invasion of the “Assyrian” forces. In the rout of the enemy the Jews pursued and
slaughtered them to Choba. It is located
most likely on a road leading into the Samaritan hill country.
CHOSAMAEUS (CosamaoV ) A name attached to, or following Simon in I Esdras 9,
which is difficult to account for. Since
the three names following “Shimeon” (Simon) in Ezra 10 are missing in its
parallel in I Esdras 9, this name probably resulted from a copying error.
CHRIST (משחא (meh shakh ah); CristoV, the Anointed One, the Messiah. See also the Biblical Entry) The hope which was to become messianic
appears only sporadically after the Exile.
The small state of Judah was ruled by high priests in the Persian and Ptolemaic
periods, and hopes based on a new Davidic monarchy receded into the
background. The rise of the Maccabean
dynasty of high priests turned the Jewish hope in a different direction, and
the messianic reign becomes more miraculous.
AE-17
The
cruelties of the later Maccabees and Pompey's capture of Jerusalem in 63 B.C.
led to a revival of Davidic messianism.
Not long after that, the Psalms of Solomon denounce the Maccabees, and
pray that the Lord will raise up the true king, a son of David who will destroy
the godless nations with the word of his mouth, gather a holy people and lead
them in righteousness. He will not trust
in horse or rider or bow, nor multiply gold and silver for war, for the Lord
himself will be king.
The
sectarians of Qumran rejected the Maccabean priests but not the priestly
ideal. They expected a Messiah of
Israel. The first non-Christian book to
use the phrase “the Messiah” in the absolute New Testament sense of the word is
the Apocalypse of Baruch.
CHRONOLOGY OF THE INTERTESTAMENTAL
PERIOD. Historical records pertaining to this period are
few. The periods from 515-445 and
428-175 are almost blank in the Bible and Apocrypha but can be found elsewhere
(See following table).
Chronology of Postexilic Judaism (424-4 B.C.)
Foreign Rulers Dates
B.C.
Persian Rulers
Xerxes II 424-423
Darius II 423-404
Artaxerxes II (Mnemon) 404-358
Artaxerxes III 358-338
Arses 338-336
Darius III 336-331
Native Rulers of Judah
And Notable Events B.C. Greek Rulers Fall of Tyre
Beginning of the Seleucid Oct. 312 Syrian/Greek rulers
(Syrian) era Antiochus III (the Great) 223-187
Persecution of the Jews and Seleucus IV 187-175
pollution of the temple 167 Antiochus IV) Epiphanes 175-163
Judas Maccabee leads revolt 166-160 Antiochus V 163-162
The temple purified 164
Jonathon Maccabee as leader 160-152 Demetrius I 162-150
and high priest 152-142 Alexander Balas 150-145
Antiochus VI 145-142
Simon Maccabee 142-134 Demetrius II 145-138
John Hyrcanus 134-104 Antiochus VII (Sidetes) 138-129
Judas Aristobulus 104-103
Alexander Janneus 103-76
Alexandra 76-67
Aristobulus II 67-63
Pompey takes Jerusalem
Hyrcanus II 63-40
Antigonus Mattathias 40-37
Herod the Great 37-4
AE-18
CHUSI (Cousei, choo si)
A place mentioned in Judith 7, located west of Aqrabeh, and south of
modern Nablus.
CIRCUMCISION (מולה, moo law; peritomh, pe ri to meh)
The act of cutting off the foreskin of the male genital. This was a religious ceremony for the Hebrews,
performed on the eighth day after birth.
It
was apparently in the period after the Babylonian exile that circumcision
assumed great importance for the Jews.
When Greek influence grew strong in Palestine, the Jews came into
contact with Greeks who didn’t practice circumcision. Antiochus Epiphanes forbade circumcision, and
his agents put to death women who had circumcised their children. After the Maccabees’ success, the rite became
most important as a mark of Jewish fidelity.
Circumcision became a requirement of proselytes. (See
also the Biblical entry).
CLEOPATRA (Kleopatra) The name given to the queens of Egypt in the Ptolemiac
Dynasty; four queens bore that name. The
Cleopatra of the Addition to Esther is thought to have been the wife of
Philometor. The Cleopatra of I Maccabee
10 is thought to be the daughter of the one just mentioned. She was given to Alexander Balas in
marriage, but when her father discovered Alexander's plot against him, he took
his daughter home and gave her to Demetrius II.
COELE-SYRIA (Koilh Suria, hollow Syria)
The name of the region between the Lebanon and the Anti-Lebanon
mountains, it is now the Beqa' Valley.
During the Hellenistic period the name was also used more broadly of all
Palestine and Phoenicia. When Herod in
47 B.C. was given military supervision over it by the Romans, it designated all
the land east of the Jordan, as distinguished from Judea, Samaria, and Galilee.
CONSUL (upatoV (up ah tos)) The title of the two chief
military and political magistrates in the Roman Republic. I Maccabee speaks of a letter sent by Lucius
to the Egyptian king Ptolemy and others, declaring the friendship between the
Roman Senate and the Jews. The
authenticity of the letter is still in dispute.
CORINTH (KorinqoV) The chief commercial city in southern Greece, on the
narrow (5.6 km wide) strip of land between the Gulf of Corinth to the north and
the Saronic Gulf to the south; the capital of the Roman province of
Achaia. The city site was about 3.2 km
inland from the Gulf of Corinth, on an elevated terrace. Corinth was strategically located on its
narrow strip of land and controlled the ports of Lechaion to the north, and
Cenechreae to the south. At its narrowest
point, smaller vessels were dragged from one gulf to the other.
Corinth
survived the widespread destruction of the Peloponesian War (431-404 B.C.) and
the Corinthian War (395-387 B.C.).
Around 378 B.C., the city was surrounded by a wall except where it was
protected by a rocky hill, the Acrocorinth.
In the next century (200s B.C.), Corinth came into conflict with
Rome. In 146 B.C., the Roman consul L.
Mummius captured, burned, and razed the city, slaying the males, and enslaving
the rest. The city lay desolate for a
century, then was refounded as a Roman colony in accordance with a decree
issued by Julius Caesar in 44 B.C. The
colonists seem to have been freedmen from Italy. They were joined later by Greeks, people from
the Middle East, and Jews. Prosperity
returned to the revived city.
COSMOGONY (See the
World, Origin of entry in the main Biblical section, and the Old Testament
Apocrypha / Influences Outside the Bible section of the Appendix.)
COURAGE The
success of the Maccabean struggle is due, among other things, to the strong
courage of leaders and followers in the cause of the nation. Courage sometimes shows up as a more
individual virtue, but it is still called forth in the cause of religion. Some see courage as a gift of God's wisdom,
and the aim of courage is “To execute in the hour of danger, in accordance with
one's plans, resolutions that have been rightly formed.” (See
also the Biblical entry.)
COVENANT The reform of Ezra was eminently successful, for
covenant and law were entirely identified with each other during this
period. The problem remained of
interpreting that law and applying it to the contemporary world. (See
also the Biblical entry.)
AE-19
The
Qumran (Dead Sea) community regarded itself as being of the new covenant. There is little room for doubt that the rules
of discipline of the community are regarded as the authoritative, normative,
and in their view, the only true interpretation of Mosaic Law. The most important fact about the Qumran
community is that it is based, not on nationhood or statehood, but upon a
solemn oath. It was a secret-covenant
community whose members had a relationship to God and to one another based upon
this solemn oath to obey the community's interpretation of divine law. It is interesting to note that this oath is
not to be sworn by a divine name, the violation of which would require death,
but rather by the curses contained in it.
CRATES (krathV (kra tez)) Viceroy
of Cyprus during the brief occupation of the island by Antiochus Epiphanes. Crates was general of the mercenaries from
Cyprus who supported Sostratus of Jerusalem.
CUTHA
(kouqa) Head of a family of temple servants who returned with
Zerubbabel; Cutha’s name is not mentioned in Ezra or Nehemiah.
CYAMON (Kuamwn) An area “which faces Esdraelon”; possibly a corruption
of “Jokneam.”
D
DABRIA One
of 5 scribes whom Ezra was bidden to take with him, “because they are trained
to write rapidly.”
DANIEL ADDITIONS TO THE BOOK OF (דניאל, judge of
God) The Greek versions contain
material not found in the Hebrew-Aramaic Masoretic Text. They are: The Prayer of Azariah and
the Song of the 3 Children; the Story of Susanna; and the stories concerning
Bel and the Dragon. The probability is
that the Addition had a Semitic original and that the prose was in
Aramaic. With regard to the Story of
Susanna and Bel and the Dragon, it is unlikely that they were first written in
Greek. We may regard all three as
expansions of the original book rather than as legitimate parts of it. They may have been part of the same oral
tradition as other stories in Daniel, but the author rejected them as not
suited to his purpose. Some of his
readers, especially Egyptian-Jews, thought the Additions were too good to be
left out. They were felt to be good
compositions and not inappropriate to the occasion and therefore were
included. (See also Biblical
Entry).
DAPHNE (Dafnh) A magnificent place near Antioch; famous for its
temple of Apollo and right of asylum.
DARIUS (דריוש, he who upholds the good) 1. Darius
II (423-404 B.C.), son of Artaxerxes I.
His position in the western part of his empire was strengthened by the
Peloponnesian War (431-404). His satrap
of Lydia was able to reoccupy Lydia.
Frequent references to Darius II occur in the Aramaic Papyri.
2. Darius III (Codomannus, 336-330 B.C.). He suffered repeated defeats against
Alexander's Macedonian armies and was murdered by Bessus, satrap of Bactria.
DATHEMA (Daqema) A fortress in Gilead to which the Jews repaired and in
which they were besieged by the Syrians and relieved by Judas Maccabeus.
DEBORAH (דבורה, bee) Tobit’s grandmother, who brought him up after
his father’s death. (See Biblical
Entry).
AE-20
DECAPOLIS (DekapoliV, ten cities)
After the death of Alexander the Great (323 B.C.) and following his
example, his successors established many Greek cities in the Near East; some
were started by the veterans of Alexander's army. These cities attracted many Greek-speaking
immigrants. They were centers of Greek
culture and became strongholds for the pagans against the indigenous Semitic
peoples. These Greek cities formed the
heart of the opposition to the Maccabean Revolt and to the later Hasmonean
rulers.
Jewish
independence ended with the appearance of the Roman army led by Pompey (64-63
B.C.). In his reorganization, Pompey
recognized the vigorous part which these Greek cities could play in Rome's
plans to stabilize the East, by providing ready-built fortresses and a
population who welcomed the coming of Rome and who could be trusted to further
her interests.
The
Greek cities were free, provided they remained loyal to Rome, paid the required
taxes, and supplied the needed military service. “Decapolis” or “Ten Cities” was the name
given to this loose federation which was founded to protect themselves, the
trade routes, and the interests of Rome.
Its formation took place no earlier than 64 or 63 B.C. and no later than
the death of Herod in 4 B.C. (See also the Biblical entry.).
DEDICATION, FEAST OF (הנכה (han uk
kah)) A general term for a
dedicatory celebration and more specifically the feast of rededication of the
temple. The most well-known of these
feasts was by Judas the Maccabee in 165 B.C., following the temple’s
desecration by the Greeks. The feast
lasts eight days and is celebrated near the winter solstice. The ceremonial lighting of eight candles
gives it the alternate name of Lights.
Though not a feast prescribed by the law, Hanukkah has been observed
without interruption and in very recent times has come to exert a greater
religious influence.
DELOS (Dhlos) A small Greek island in the Aegean Sea, 4.8 km long
and 1.6 km wide, sacred to the god Apollo.
It was important enough to have been the rival of Athens, and in the
last 200 years before Christ it became a great harbor and center of trade in
the Mediterranean. In 167 B.C. the
island was punished by Rome; the Greek inhabitants fled, to be replaced by
Roman traders. By 137 B.C. the Jews who settled
there were protected by Rome. In the
next century Delos largely lost its wealth and power when it was captured by
Mithridates in his war against Rome, and never regained its former prosperity.
DEMETRIUS (DhmhtrioV) (See also
the Biblical entry) 1. Demetrius
Poliorcetes (died 283 B.C.), son of Anitgonus.
He was defeated by Ptolemy I at Gaza in 312 B.C.
2. Demetrius I, Soter; Syrian king around
162-151 B.C. When Seleucus IV succeeded
to the Syrian throne of his brother Antiochus III, his son Demetrius I was sent
to Rome as a hostage. Seleucus was assassinated
and Antiochus IV, Epiphanes became the ruler.
Nevertheless, Demetrius was not released. Demetrius asked for his freedom, but the
Roman Senate refused; he then escaped.
Demetrius proclaimed himself king of Syria and killed Antiochus V,
Eupator, the young son of Antiochus Epiphanes.
Judas
Maccabeus then made a treaty with Rome, and Demetrius was warned about the
atrocities he perpetrated on the Jews.
He sent troops three times against the Judeans; in the third battle
Judas Maccabeus was killed. When
Alexander Balas was battling Demetrius, the latter sent a letter to Jonathan,
Alexander's rival, seeking peace. But
Alexander Balas appointed Jonathan high priest.
Demetrius offered many concessions to Alexander, which Alexander did not
accept because he did not trust Demetrius.
Alexander Balas fought with Demetrius and finally defeated him. Demetrius’ horse fell in a swamp, and there
Demetrius was killed in 151.
3. Demetrius II, Nicator (146-139 B.C.), son
of Demetrius I. He came from Crete to
Syria, and that bothered Alexander Balas.
Ptolemy Philometor of Egypt discovered that Alexander, who was his
son-in-law, plotted against him. He sent
envoys to King Demetrius asking for a pact and promising him that he would
reign over his father's kingdom.
Hearing
of Jonathan's siege of Jerusalem, Demetrius II asked him to meet him at
Ptolemais and conferred upon him the high priesthood and the title “friend of
the king,” even though Jonathan did not lift his siege. Demetrius released his soldiers, except the
mercenaries, but the people turned against him. The Jews aided Demetrius in Syria, in return
for the removal of the Syrian garrison from Jerusalem. But again Demetrius did not keep his
promises. He sent an army against Jonathan,
but Jonathan eventually became master of the entire country. Later, Simon the Hasmonean appealed to
Demetrius II to make peace and recognize Judea as an independent state. Demetrius was imprisoned by the Persians in
Media after seeking an alliance with them.
AE-21
4. Demetrius III, Eucerus, son of Antiochus
Grypos. He came to the Pharisees’ aid against Alexander Janneus in 88 B.C. The Pharisees turned from him later, showing
a preference for their own Jewish king.
5. An Alexandrian Jewish historian who deals
with biblical chronology, seeking to show how ancient Israel was. Only fragments of his work still exist.
6. Demetrius of Phalerum. He was head of the library at
Alexandria. He induced Ptolemy II to
obtain the translation of the Bible for the museum.
DEMON, DEMONOLOGY (אלהים (el oh
heem); daimwn (dah ee mown)) During the postexilic and inter-testamental
periods, the conception of demons, as of angels, was greatly influenced by the
infiltration of Iranian ideas. In them,
the world is a battleground between the adherents of the Good Mind and those of
his rival, the Spirit of Perversity and Deception. Demons or daimons
are the spiritual legions and ministers of the latter. Popular Judaism adopted this picture by
thinking of daimons as a distinct
order of malign spirits who were subject to Satan, or Belial. They were seen as obstacles or obstructions
to God's will and destined ultimately to be overthrown by Yahweh and his
partisans.
This
popular conception had to face competition at the hands of the “orthodox”
tradition which saw in even such qualified dualism a challenge to the
monotheistic supremacy of Yahweh.
Orthodox belief came up with two theories. One theory substituted a special order of “angels
of destruction” for the rival hosts of Satan.
The angels were emissaries of Yahweh appointed by him to execute
punishment on sinners. The other theory
turned Iranian demons into angels who had rebelled against Yahweh. Because of their disobedience and the
pollution they had encountered, they were disqualified from restoration to
heaven.
The
ringleader of the demons was identified explicitly with an Old Testament
character. Four candidates for this
ringleader were: Satan, “the Obstructor”; Mastemah, “hostility or
obstruction”; Belial, “worthless”; and Azazel, desert demon. In the book of Tobit, a specific demon named
Asmodeus is named as a kind of male counterpart of the succuba. (See
also the Biblical Entry)
DEMOPHON (Dhmofwn) One of the Palestinian district governors in Maccabean
times. He, among other governors, “would
not let [the citizens] live quietly and in peace.”
DESSAU (Dessaou) A town in Judea where Nicanor and the Jews met in
battle.
DIONYSIA (Dionusia, festival of Dionysus) A festival in honor of the Dionysus, a
vegetation god. It celebrated the
return of life and fertility in spring.
It was often accompanied by drunken excesses, sexual license, and the reenactment
of the myth of Dionysus by the tearing to pieces of a human or animal
victim. Antiochus Epiphanes compelled
the Jews to join in long processions when he introduced this festival to
Palestine.
DIONYSUS (DionusoV) A vegetation-deity originally from the area north and
east of Greece, worshipped by orgiastic rites of singular crudeness and
brutality. He was adopted by the Greeks,
and was generally known to the Romans as Bacchus. The Greeks and Romans knew him chiefly as the
god of the vine. He was also the center
of a mystery cult and admitted his initiates to participation in the divine
nature. After Alexander, his worship
extended through the kingdoms Alexander had conquered. In II Maccabees, Antiochus Epiphanes forces
the Jews to walk in the procession of Dionysus, and Nicanor threatens to
destroy the temple and erect a sanctuary to Dionysus on its site. In III Maccabees, Ptolemy Philopator orders
Jews to be branded with the ivy leaf of Dionysus, the patron of the Macedonian
dynasty.
DIOSCORINTHIUS (DioskorinqioV) The name of a month in the dating of Lysia's letter to
the Jews in 165-164 B.C. There is no
month by that name known to present-day scholars, so there are numerous
theories as what month is indicated by this word.
AE-22
DISCIPLINE (מוסר (mo sare); paideia
(pahee die ah)) In the Apocrypha discipline is
heavy-handed; whips and scourges are synonymous with discipline. To the world the righteous souls appear to be
undergoing punishment, but they should know that God is disciplining them, and
in the end they will be found worthy.
DISCUS (diskoV) A Greek game, introduced to the Jews by the
high priest Jason in the Maccabean period, as part of his process of
introducing Greek culture to Palestine; he also erected a Greek gymnasium. The discus was a flat circular plate of wood,
stone or metal, and was quite heavy. The
game consisted in attempting to throw it farther than one's competitors. It was often hurled 30 meters or more.
DOK (Dwk) The small fortress in which Simon Maccabeus met his
death in 135 B.C. Simon and two of his
sons were murdered there by Simon's son-in-law Ptolemy.
DORYMENES (DorumenhV) The father of Ptolemy Macron, who was one of the “mighty
men among the friends of the king,” were chosen by Lysias to lead an army “into
the land of Judah and destroy it.”
DOSITHEUS (DorumenhV) 1. A captain under Judas Maccabeus; troops commanded by
him and Sosipater captured Timothy and the stronghold he held.
2. A cavalryman of great strength; one of
Bacenor's men. He was wounded by a
Thracian horseman while trying to capture Gorgias.
3. A
Jew given high military post by Ptolemy Philopator and Cleopatra.
4. A man claiming to be a priest and Levite
who carried Mordecai's letter regarding the Feast of Purim down to Egypt.
DUKE (neh sie (נשיא), prince, chief; אלוף (al
loof), family head strathgoV
(stra teh gos), governor, general) The King James Version's translation of
these words; it was not yet a royal title when this version was written.
E
ECCLEISIASTICUS (ekklhsiastikoV, of (to be read in) church) The seventh book (and probably the
earliest to be written) of the Apocrypha, ascribed to Jesus (Hebrew Joshua;
Aramaic Jeshua) the son of Sirach, a Jerusalem teacher from 200-175 B.C. It is the most comprehensive sample of
surviving Jewish Wisdom literature and bears striking resemblances to the book
of Proverbs. There are three principal
surviving versions of this book: one in the primary Greek Old Testament;
one in Syriac of the Peshitta; and the Hebrew fragments used in rabbinic quotations. In the first half of the 1900s, the majority
of this book was found in Hebrew, in the repository for worn-out manuscripts in
Old Cairo.
AE-23
Date,
Text, and Author—Jesus Ben Sirach's
thought and style suggest that his work has written some time during the
century preceding the Maccabean Revolt in 168 B.C. From the Greek translator's preface we gather
that he was a grandson of the author, that he arrived in Egypt in 132 B.C., and
that his grandfather, Ben Sirach flourished in the early decades of the 100s
before the persecution under Antiochus Epiphanes.
Ben Sirach's eulogy of the high priest
Simon son of Onias in this book gives the impression that Simon had recently
held office. There were two Simons, the
first of whom was a legendary figure used in the rabbinical schools to cover
the period between Ezra of the Old Testament and Antigonus of Socho (400-180
B.C.), with a career spanning two centuries.
The second served around 200 B.C.
The phrase “in his life” seems to imply his death, which took place in
195 B.C. We have the period between 195
and 171, when Antiochus Epiphanes replaced the high priest with a Benjaminite,
as the most likely time for the writing of this book.
Our
knowledge of the author is based entirely on the internal evidence of this
book. Ecclesiasticus is the only book in
the Apocrypha to which the author attached his name; the others are either
attributed to some outstanding individual in Hebrew history, or they appear
anonymously. There is some confusion as
to his name, but the most reliable texts give his name as Jesus, son of
Sirach.
Ben
Sirach was well versed in the Scriptures, particularly the books of Proverbs
and Psalms. Though philosophical, his wise sayings were of a prudent
nature. He was skeptical of metaphysical
speculations, holding that the ultimate
mysteries of the world are beyond human comprehension. Ben Sirach had traveled in foreign lands and
had frequently been in danger of death.
His counsel ranges over a wide area of human activity and duties, the highest of which is
the search for wisdom. But he does not forget
to stress that the acquisition of wisdom will eventually benefit with pecuniary
rewards.
Ben Sirach is deeply mistrustful of women,
thinking of them as enticers to wickedness.
He seems to have personal knowledge of unhappy marriages, but he does
not think that a happy marriage is impossible.
He had considerable poetic talent, and he defends the work of physicians
against objections which perhaps arose from religious scruples. He was probably
a scholar who conducted classes in Jerusalem.
In the portrayal of the genuine scribe Ben Sirach may well be presenting
an idealized picture of his own career as a man of culture who devoted his time
to study, and a man who has traveled and who attains to eminence in public
affairs.
In
his counsels respecting banquets and in his suggestion that an intelligent man
avoids consorting with loose women, Ben Sirach reflects a way of life which
seems to have been influenced by Greek civilization. But we cannot definitely say that he had
learned Greek. He can and does share the
common stock of moral ideas, but he could do so without firsthand acquaintance
with Greek writers. He does in one piece
of advice regarding association with richer and more powerful people appear to
allude to the Aesop's fable of the pot and kettle. Holding that God discloses his secrets to the
humble, Ben Sirach asserts the vanity of all human endeavors to solve the
ultimate problems of existence. Ben
Sirach's conceptions of the scribe as a man of leisure was not followed by
Jewish tradition, which calls for learning a profession. While Greek culture may have had some
positive influence on Ben Sirach's thought, it was neither profound or
extensive.
The
fact is that Greek culture’s negative influence is much more pronounced than
the positive. Although Yahweh is the
creator of all things, Israel is Yahweh's chosen people, and although wisdom is
a divine quality to be found in all creation, yet she has her proper home in
Zion. The adoption of Greek customs
appears to have reached its height in 174-171, but even before that when Ben
Sirach was writing, Jewish custom seems to have been affected by the allure of
Greek civilization, and it is probably in the light of such a situation that
his call for an uncompromising obedience to the words of the Lord is to be
understood. Only the sinner tries to
walk along two ways at the same time.
Only misguided individuals argue that humans are too trivial as
creatures for their conduct to be an object of God's concern. Ben Sirach offers no direct criticism of
Greek culture; he merely presupposes that divine Wisdom is uniquely embodied in
the Scriptures and nowhere else.
AE-24
Contents—Ecclesiasticus may be largely
based on lecture notes which Ben Sirach rewrote in verse for publication. He
evidently followed no definite scheme in the arrangement of his material. Many different proposals have been made
regarding the book’s division. This
article will consider 5 parts: The
Greek prologue; 2 main sections, both begun with a long poem in praise of
wisdom and perhaps published separately; a third section consisting of three
relatively long poems; and what appears to be an appendix in the last chapter.
In
the Greek prologue, the translator commends his grandfather's work and begs the
reader to be indulgent of any imperfections in his translation from the
Hebrew. The first main section, perhaps
the first published volume, is introduced with a poem celebrating wisdom; in it
all wisdom is of divine origin and has its beginning in the fear of the
Lord.
The
ideas highlighted in this section are: hypocrisy and pride exclude the
possibility of acquiring wisdom; despite her discipline, wisdom gives help and
joy to those who seek her; the search for wisdom should continue from youth to
old age; wisdom is obtained from the sages and the aged, and one should be
prudent in one's personal associations; the wisdom of a humble person will
raise them to a position of authority; avoid passing judgments on people; be
content with your profession, and call no one happy before their death; avoid
associating with people who are wealthier and more powerful than you; the happy
person meditates on wisdom; God created people free to choose between good and
evil, but God is not responsible for human waywardness; God endowed humans
with the power to think, that they might praise the Creator; the wise person
guards against wrong-doing and controls their appetites, especially for wine
and women; wisdom will bring a person to a position of authority. The way of sinners is smoothly paved with
stones, but at it end is the pit of Sheol; avoid swearing too many oaths, of
uttering the name of the Holy One and of using vulgar words.
The
second main section may have been the earlier part of a second
publication. In its introductory poem,
wisdom pervades all things, but in a special sense dwells in the beloved city
of Jerusalem. The ideas highlighted are: a harmonious marriage is one of three
beautiful things, and an adulterous old fool is one of three hateful types of
men; three things that are grievous to see are a warrior brought to poverty, an
intelligent person treated contemptuously, and a righteous person turning to
sin; practice forgiveness, and then your sins will be pardoned in prayer; lend
when your neighbor is in need, even if you may not be repaid, and you will gain
spiritual treasure; a father who loves his son will often whip him; a
God-fearing person will find true understanding in the law, but a sinful person
will adapt the law to fit their own purpose.
God distinguished holy days from
ordinary days, and likewise God distinguished among men and appointed their
different ways; the head of a family should not give property away to relatives
before his or her death; ritual acts without genuine piety are valueless; as
foods vary in quality, so do women, and some friends are friends only in name;
for advice one should consult a pious person and one's own heart; the wisdom of
the scribe depends on the opportunity of leisure; mental and physical suffering
comes to all, but more particularly to the wicked; death is God's decree for
all flesh and should be accepted with equanimity.
The
three long poems that come next in the third main section may have appeared
separately on special occasions before they were included in the book as it now
stands. In the first poem, God's glory
is reflected in the world God has created, and even his holy one are unable to
recount all the wonder of God's works.
The second poem spans 6 chapters and has
the Hebrew title of “Praise of the fathers of old.” It states that all the great men of the past
should be praised. They won fame during their lives; and though some of them
have left no memorial, yet their righteous deeds have not been forgotten. All the well-known male figures are named and
described, from the patriarchs, to the men of Exodus, to the judges and kings,
good and wicked, to the prophets; Ezra is a notable absence from this
list. Adam is honored above every living
being in creation. The third poem is a
eulogy of Simon II the high priest, son of Onias, who accomplished many things
during his time of service. This poem
and the third main section close on a note of contempt for the Idumeans, the Philistines,
and the Samaritans, as well as a final admonition to take the instruction in
this book to heart.
Chapter 51, the final chapter, seems to be
an appendix which includes: a psalm of thanksgiving for delivering the
author from various afflictions; a order of worship (in the Hebrew version
only); an alphabetical acrostic poem recounting how Ben Sirach acquired wisdom
through seeking it in the days of his youth; and an alphabetical acrostic hymn
(in Hebrew and Syriac only).
AE-25
Language and Style—Although Hebrew
continued to flourish as the language of the schools, Aramaic influence was
making itself felt when Ben Sirach was writing.
The language he used is not reason enough to oppose the view that his
book was written earlier than such canonical works as Daniel and Esther. His writing was not as good as Job, but he
possesses considerable literary style, and many of his clever pointed remarks
which included an antithesis compare well with the best in Proverbs. Despite his identification of wisdom with the
law of Moses, he never sets forth legal regulations in a juristic style.
Like
the authors of Proverbs, Ben Sirach usually employs the normal Hebrew literary
unit of verses in parallelism, with four stress-accents on each verse. Usually Ben Sirach does not leave his pairs
of lines in isolation but connects them with related verses to form continuous
passages. As in the book of Proverbs,
the glories of personified wisdom are celebrated in psalm-like verse. From time
to time he exhorts his readers to bless their Maker, and he shows great
admiration for the liturgy of the temple.
Lyrical strains suddenly appear in otherwise purely instructive
passages. Perhaps the finest examples of
Ben Sirach's lyrical talent are to be found in the hymns to the glory of God in
chapter 39 and chapters 42-43.
Doctrinal
Contradictions—Ben Sirach holds that
the greatest good is wisdom, a divine quality to some extent present in all
creation. It can be discerned in the
world generally and in the law of Moses more particularly. Ben Sirach offers the results of his lifelong
reflection on the basic conditions of human existence. It contains contradictory viewpoints, which
he does not succeed in harmonizing with one another.
The
author of Ecclesiasticus takes over the ethical monotheism of Amos and his
prophetic successors. The Lord rules
with justice, requiting men according to their deserts and controlling the
course of events for the benefit of the righteous and the punishment of the
wicked. Wisdom herself is of divine origin;
God poured her out upon all God's works and supplied her to those who love
him. But humankind can still choose
between good and evil, and therefore the responsibility for sin must not be
attributed to God. Ben Sirach is quite
confident that humankind was left in the power of their own inclination at the
Creation, and although at times, they may need divine help to overcome their
evil propensities, the finite individual alone is finally re-sponsible for the
way in which his or her destiny is worked out.
In
terms of pessimism and optimism, Ben Sirach holds that Man was created from
dust and returns to dust, that all men are sinful, and women especially so. All works of the Lord are good. The Hebrew versions of his book have a gloomy
description of Sheol, which is softened somewhat in the Greek versions. God is just or impartial in his treatment of
God's creatures, so that good things come to good people and evil things to
sinners. Ben Sirach teaches that just
retribution operates wholly on this side of the grave. He is not unaware of the objections that are
raised against this theory, and so makes a distinction between appearance and
reality. Things are not what they seem
to be and are not therefore to be taken at face value. Moreover, the spiritual
rewards of piety are not to be overlooked: the righteous person finds true friends, and
wins a good and lasting name that outlives him.
Ben
Sirach greatly respects the priesthood and the ritualism of the temple. Ben Sirach therefore calls upon his readers
to honor the priests and to pay the contributions due to them as ministers of
the Lord. But Ben Sirach also emphasizes
the ineffectiveness of ritual performances in general. It is the generous offering of the righteous
that are acceptable to God, and it is the practice of justice and kindness that
atones for sin. Following the teaching
of prophets like Amos, Jeremiah, and the writer of the second part of Isaiah,
Ben Sirach holds that there is one universal God, whose will is valid for all humankind. On the other hand, Israel is the Lord's own
portion, his first-born son.
The
ethics of Ben Sirach are evidently derived from a study of the writings of the
sages, particularly the book of Proverbs, and from personal experience. His moral generalizations are not always
convincing, and his teaching is not always consistent. He sometimes implies that women are
inherently evil. Those inconsistancies
seem to show that Ben Sirach's rationalistic, prudent thinking suffers from
certain serious limitations. He refuses
to see things from any other standpoint than that of a despotic head of a
family. It is in terms of respect for
the law rather than in terms of rational, prudent thinking, that he defines
wisdom.
The
sum of moral truth comes to be found in obedience to the will of God as
revealed in the Scriptures. But not all
the law in the first five books of his Bible were of equal importance. The ritualistic rulings are taken to be
secondary to the ethical. This is very
different from rabbinical teaching. In
fact Ben Sirach ignores Ezra, the man who is the prototype of the genuine
scholar in Talmudic and Pharisaic tradition, which is central to rabbinical
thought.
AE-26
EDNA (Edna, delight) The
wife of Raguel, Tobit's kinsman; and the mother of Sarah, the bride of Tobias.
EDUCATION (See also the Biblical Entry) The professional class of scribes,
who existed since the early days of the monarchy, were the repositories of Israel
They,
in turn, were the predecessors of the doctors of law who flourished from the
time of the Seleucid (Greek) rulers through the Maccabean and Roman periods up
to the time of the completion of the Mishna around 200 A.D. For about 200 years, the scribes slowly built
up their method of biblical exegesis and interpretation and law adaptation to
meet the challenges of their times into the Mishna’s formidable structure.
Josephus,
the Jewish historian, speaks of elementary education as a long-established
institution. Philo states that Jews are instructed
in knowledge of their laws from their earliest youth. The mass of Talmudic literature indicates
that, during the entire latter period of the Second Commonwealth, literacy was
quite widespread. The establishment of
a mandatory system of schools is credited to the Pharisees. The first of these Pharisaic schools were
established in Jerusalem, and children began their education at the age of six
or seven. Secondary and higher education
for adolescents and young men of promise was continued in the “beth mid-rash,”
the “house of study.” There was adult
education in the form of priests visiting various towns to teach the Torah, on
days which often coincided with market days.
To Josephus, this was a well-established custom.
The picture of Jewish education after the OT is
complicated by the wide dispersal of Jews, with more of them living outside of
Palestine than inside. The major Jewish
communities in foreign lands were in Egypt and Mesopotamia, but substantial
communities were also found in most of the Roman Empire’s cities. Wherever Jews settled, in order to survive,
they had to become bilingual. They had
to learn the languages and skills necessary to the production and distribution
of goods and services. So, Jews living
outside Palestine acquired many new skills.
We are not always able to say how this new learning was acquired.
Jewish
education of this period was primarily religious. God was the presupposition of all Jewish life
and culture. The idea of secular life
and culture was foreign to Jewish thought.
Greeks and Romans believed that a human's mind itself discovered truth;
so they stressed the development of human reason, philosophy and the sciences. Hebrews, by contrast, believed that all truth
comes from God; that God reveals to humans whatever knowledge is necessary for
his welfare. Hebrew learning revolved
about the concepts of God and humans.
Education had to do mainly with the moral and spiritual life.
AE-27
We
find very little of a scientific character in Jewish education. There is nothing about physics, chemistry,
biology, physiology, and other natural sciences. In spite of Jewish mastery of practical
skills, we hear of no schools to teach such things. There were no schools of music, architecture,
sculpture, painting, theater arts, and the like. These were associated with pagan religions,
so Jewish culture never cultivated these arts.
Jews and Christian of the New Testament (NT) period had no philosophy schools. The nature of philosophical speculation
tends to deny the concept of revelation which is central to Jewish and
Christian education.
The
basic curriculum of Jewish education was the Bible itself. God had inspired the Scriptures so that they
were a perfect repository of truth.
There were other important books, the best known being the OT
apocrypha. Such ideas as Jews had about
the natural sciences were embedded in incidental ways in their Scriptures. Hebrews had no books on government and
political science as such, yet in the first five books of the OT lies the
constitution on which the Hebrew state was based.
There
was no medicine as such; there were no physicians. These matters were in the hands of the
priests. More congenial to Hebrew and
early Christian ideas of disease were beliefs about demon-possession and the
mental aberrations resulting from it.
Both Jews and Christians dealt with such forms of mental illness by
means of exorcism, which was practiced until the emergence of modern scientific
medicine.
The
original language of the canonical Jewish scriptures was Hebrew, but by the end
of the OT period the vernacular speech of Palestinian Jews was Aramaic. This meant that Scriptures needed to be
translated into Aramaic; they are now known as Targums. Also, those Jews who had settled in Egypt,
Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy had adopted the Greek language, and Greek
translations became a necessity. It also
enabled non-Jew to read the Jewish Bible.
Many Gentiles thereby acquired an admiration for Judaism.
It
needs to be kept in mind also that Greek was widely spoken even in Palestine,
and many Palestinians were bilingual.
However, most early Christians used only Greek translations of the
Hebrew scriptures. It is evident that
the religious education of many Jews and most Christians in the Empire at the
time was based on Greek translations of the Scriptures. The use of Greek made the Greek culture
accessible, first to Jews and then to Christians. Thus emerged a new understanding of religion
by each new generation, as it made use of the legacy of Greece Palestine
A
Jewish view is indicated in a saying to the effect that a child is ready to
begin study of the Scriptures at five, the Mishna at ten, the commandments at
thirteen, the Talmud at fifteen, and is ready for marriage at eighteen. The first teachers of Hebrew children were
their parents. There is no reference to
elementary schools until the Maccabean period.
The
most fundamental Jewish educational institution was the synagogue, which grew
up in response to the needs of Jews for maintaining their culture and
faith. It also served as place of
worship. But above all it was a place of
study. In fact, the synagogue had
essentially replaced the temple in Jewish life even before its fall in 70
A.D. After the temple was gone, the
synagogue was able to carry on without a serious break.
Above
the synagogue was a more advanced study. This goes back to Ezra, who instituted
a renaissance of education and religion. In later generations there followed a
series of great teachers like Ezra, making up what was known as the Great
Synagogue. Each in their own time was
head of a school in Palestine, one whose learning came to set the standard for
Judaism. The best known of these
teachers from the NT period were Shammai and Hillel. Hillel's grandson Gamaliel, was Paul's
teacher near 30 A.D.
These
great teachers began their work with the written law, but they also included
the oral traditions, judgments, and interpretations of scholars prior to them.
In Jewish schools there was no formal recognition of foreign cultures, not even
foreign languages. Josephus, Philo,
Paul, and all other Jews with a good knowledge of Greek had to acquire it on
their own initiative outside of the synagogue.
At the time of Christ the traditions had to be passed along by memory;
it was felt that only the Scriptures should be written down. By 200 A.D. the tradition was so large that
it had to be written down. It was done
by Rabbi Judah and became the Mishna, the earliest part of the Talmud.
Even
before synagogues there had been teachers among the Hebrews. Moses was supposed to have been the greatest
of the OT teachers. King Solomon had a
reputation for scholarship. Some of the
greatest of the teachers were prophets.
The sages who produced the wisdom literature were the immediate
successors of the prophets. Ezra was a
scribe, a term that was finally replaced by “rabbi.” Jesus, the best known of all biblical
teachers, was often critical of the scribes.
Yet in the sense that he embraced and taught both the old and the new,
Jesus was a scribe. As a teacher, Jesus
fits into the category of sage or scribe better than that of prophet, because
he spoke on his own authority.
AE-28
The
Greeks had a genius for scholarly attainments.
During the classical period of Greek history the privileges of
education were mainly enjoyed by the aristocratic upper classes. The ancient Greek ideal of education was to
produce men who were outstanding in physical strength and courage, skillful
with weapons but also in music, disciplined in war while at the same time
showing the gentler graces of chivalry.
The
cultural vigor of that brilliant period began to wane along with the decline of
the economic and political power of individual Greek states. With Alexander, domination of that world
moved for the first time from the west to the east. First, the kingdoms of Syria and Egypt were
influenced by Greek culture; they were followed by Rome. They knew how to adapt the influence of Greek
culture to fit their own purposes, frequently adding barbaric touches of their
own.
The
age of Greek influences, or Hellenism, was thus a cultural, as well as a
military and political, phenomenon. The
culture of Greece was carried, either by the power of its inherent virtues or
the far-ranging influence of Greek commerce, or by imposition of Greek military
and political force. Eventually, it
spread like a veneer over the cultures of most of the nations of the
Mediterranean world.
Greek
education was informed by the idea that every attribute of body, mind, and
soul, properly disciplined, is inherently good and worthy of expression. The gods themselves were conceived so that
they inspired the development and exercise of all of the human's potential
powers. No other society saw or has seen
more clearly the importance of the application of the mind to the world’s problems
and the human soul.
EGG
(ביצ (bay tsah);
won (oh on)) Egg of the domesticated fowl did not
become a common item of food in Palestine
EGYPT (מצרים (mits rah
yim), fortifications, borders) A
land in northeastern Africa; in the narrowest sense the two banks of the Nile
River from the First Cataract north to the region of modern Cairo, which is
Upper and Middle Egypt, and the Delta, which is Lower Egypt. For 60 years after 404 B.C., there were only
three native dynasties. Only Nectanebo I
(379-361 B.C.) and Nectanebo II (359-341 B.C.) were strong enough to force even
a temporary unity. Persian domination reasserted itself in 341 B.C.
After
Alexander the Great had defeated Darius III of Persia at Issus in Cilicia 333
B.C., he first subdued Tyre and then moved on to Egypt. The country welcomed a deliverer. The Macedonian army entered Memphis, and
Alexander paid his respects to the Egyptian gods in the autumn of 332 B.C. Then marching north-west, he founded a new
city, named Alexandria after himself; it was the first important Egyptian city
on the coast and the most cosmopolitan city Egypt had ever seen. At the oracle of the god Ammon, he was
saluted as the god's son. The Egyptian
concept that their king was a god deeply affected the mystical young warrior.
From
Egypt, Alexander set out to conquer the world.
When he died in 323 B.C., his half-brother and his still unborn son were
the obvious heirs. The real power,
however, lay in the control of Alexander's generals. Ptolemy, son of Lagus, ruled Egypt as a
satrap. In 306 B.C., the empire was
carved up. Cassander took Macedonia and the Northwest; Seleucus took Syria and
the East, with his capital at Antioch; Ptolemy took Egypt and the Southwest. When Alexander's son died, Ptolemy I Soter
(305-285 B.C.) became pharaoh of Egypt and founder of the Ptolemaic Dynasty
(305-30 B.C.).
The
Dynasty began with the devoted attention of the new rulers to the interests of
Egypt. New temples were built, and Alexandria became a famous center of
intellectual life and a vigorous commercial city. Under Ptolemy I there was set up in
Alexandria a museum and library. The
great library of Alexandria came to accumulate half a million scrolls. Alexandria became the exciting center for old
and new ideas of the civilized world. This city, along with Naucratis in the
Delta and Ptolemais in Upper Egypt were granted self-government along Greek
lines. The Ptolemies energetically
promoted the agricultural productivity of Egypt with new canals and extensive
land reclamation. The new rulers were
not content to hold Egypt alone, and Ptolemy III Euergates (246-221 B.C.)
conquered land which was also claimed by Seleucids, who ruled Palestine from
Antioch. Antiochus III (the Great) began
to take the Asiatic territory which Egypt had seized.
AE-29
The
Ptolemaic Dynasty’s later years, from about 220 B.C. on, showed a decided
weakening in power and in character, through family feuds, unwise military
enterprises, an attempt to secure Roman support, and sheer frivolity. The weak Ptolemy IV Philopator managed to
defeat Antiochus at Raphia in 217 B.C., but he mismanaged both the Egyptian
economy and relations with the native Egyptians. Weakened by local revolts, they called on
Rome for support, thus sacrificing some of her independence and increasingly
becoming a Roman client.
One
member of the Ptolemy family was able to use great diplomatic genius to
preserve the independence of her land—Cleopatra. First Caesar came to Egypt in 48 B.C.; from
41 B.C. on, it was Antony. Yet she was
no match for Rome, and after their defeat at Actium, she took her own life in
30 B.C., rather than become a vassal.
Egypt became a vassal state for many centuries. (See
also Biblical entry).
EKRON (עקרונ, eradication) The northernmost of the five principal
cities of the Philistines, about 14km east of the Mediterranean , near the beginning of the Valley of Sorek Jerusalem
ELASA (Elasa) The place near Beth-horon where Judas
Maccabeus was slain in 161 B.C.
ELEAZAR (אלעזר, God has helped) 1. “One of the principal scribes,” martyred during the persecution of
Antiochus Epiphanes.
2. The fourth son of Mattathias and brother
of Judas Maccabee. In the battle of
Beth-zechariah, he fought his way to an elephant he thought bore Antiochus
Eupator, and was crushed as he killed it.
3.
The father of Jason in I Maccabees 8
ELEPHANTS (elefaV (el eh fas))
Any large mammal with a long trunk. There are African and Indian elephants. The African is larger; the Indian is more
widely domesticated. Aristotle knows of
the Indian variety. Fifteen of them were
used by Darius III of Persia in 331 B.C. at the battle of Gaugamela against
Alexander of Macedon. The Seleucids
Greeks who settled in the Near East bred and trained elephants. Lysias included 32 elephants in the force
marshaled against the Palestinian Jews in 163 B.C. (See
also the Biblical Entry).
ELEPHANTINE PAPYRI The Aramaic papyri
of the 400s B.C. found at Elephantine Island Southern Egypt . The papyri
revealed that there was a Hebrew colony on Elephantine Island
A
great many of these papyri are legal texts.
Often an oath by a god was imposed, and if a claimant refused to swear
it, he lost his case. Sales of houses
and conveyances, loans with extremely high interest, marriage contracts,
documents freeing slaves and adoption are all represented.
There
are also numerous letters among these texts.
One addressed to Bagoas, governor of Judea, appeals for intervention to
restore the Yahu temple, which had been destroyed in 410 B.C. at the
instigation of the priests of the Egyptian god Khnum. Further correspondence indicates that the
temple must have been restored. The
religion of these Jews tended toward blending with other Near Eastern
beliefs. The salutations of the letters
frequently refer to “the gods,” and the names of Babylonian gods are used on
several occasions.
Of
great interest is the order issued by the authority of Darius II in 419 B.C.,
directing the colony to celebrate the Feast of Unleavened Bread. The Elephantine Papyri are of great
importance for the question of the time of Ezra's coming and for the date of
the Samaritan Schism.
AE-30
ELEUTHERUS (eleuqeroV (el ay oo they ros)) A river in Syria Mount Lebanon and flowing to the sea; an important boundary line
referred to in the exploits of Jonathon (I Maccabee 11).
ELIALIS ( 'Elialei) An Israelite who put away his foreign wife
and children in the time of Ezra.
ELIASIS ( 'EliaseiV) One of the Israelites, of the family of Bani,
who put away his foreign wife and children.
ELIJAH (אליה, the Lord is God) 1. One
of the ancestors of Judith; father of Ahitub.
ELIJAH, APOCALYPSE OF. A
brief, thoroughly Jewish apocalypse, written around 261 A.D. Its conclusion contains: devastating wars of the Anti-Messiah; the
Messiah establishing a 40 year kingdom; a general resurrection and judgment;
the wicked are sent to a fiery pit, but the saints dwell with God in a
combination of a glorious Jerusalem, and a new Garden of Eden.
ELIOENAI (אליועני (e lee oh
ay nie), my eyes are towards my God)
1. A priest of the sons of
Pashhur who put away his foreign wife (I
Esdras 9). 2. A son of Zattu who put away his foreign
wife (I Esdras 9).
ELIONAS (EliwnaV) One of those who put away their foreign wives (I
Esdras 9).
ELIPHELET (אליפלט, God is deliverance) 1. One
of those who returned from exile with Ezra (I Esdras 8).
2. One of those who put away their foreign
wives (I Esdras 9).
ELKIAH ( 'Elkea) A
ancestor of Judith; son Ananias and father of Oziel.
ELYMAIS ( h
ElumaiV) A
city or province located according to I Maccabee in Persia
EMADABUN (Hmadaboun) A surname
distinguishing a certain Jeshua from a Jeshua listed previously among the
returning Levites who rebuilt the temple (I Esdras 5).
EMENDATIONS OF THE SCRIBES A list of
eighteen words that were changed in the Masoretic Text to avoid describing God
as having a human form.
EMPEROR-WORSHIP. Reverence paid to a Roman emperor, whether living or
dead, as a divine being. God-hood was
not official until voted on by the Senate after the ruler's death.
The
worship of kings had precedents in both oriental and Greek culture; such
worship was fairly common in the Hellenistic Age. In the eastern Empire, Julius Caesar was
praised as “a god manifest and the savior of the whole human race.” In Rome he was not deified until two years
after his death. Augustus was worshipped
as a god in the provinces, but he officially permitted his worship there only
when it was combined with that of Rome. It has been argued by some historians that
Augustus was officially recognized as divine in his lifetime. (See
also the Biblical entry).
ENEMESSAR (EnemessaroV) The book of Tobit is dated with reference to
the captivity that took place “in the time of Enemessar king of the Assyrians.” This name is from switching around the parts
of an Assyrian compound word, which was another name for the Assyrian general
Sargon who seized the throne after Shalmaneser IV died.
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ENOCH, BOOK OF. One
of several writings which used the name of Enoch, son of Jared, and father of
Methuselah. Genesis 5 as interpreted by
some gave rise to the belief that Enoch had been translated into heaven. His name was naturally used for the title of
a book that reveals the secrets of heaven and future events.
This
lengthy composite work of 108 chapters of quite uneven length was originally
written in Hebrew, Aramaic, or both. It was
translated into Greek at some early date, and from Greek into Ethiopic (around
500 A.D.); the entire work (presumably) is preserved in Ethiopic. The first complete translation into a modern
language was that made by Laurence in 1821.
The
book was probably composed after 100 B.C.; it is a compilation of disparate and
inconsistent (if not contradictory) sources of differing types by different
writers of different times; the text is quite corrupt. The extent to which the compiler reworked his
sources cannot be determined. To some
extent he interwove his sources. More
typically, one source is followed by another, and many passages were first in
poetic form.
The
book of Enoch was well known to Jews and later to Christians; from the 100s
A.D. on, it is seldom mentioned. It was
used by the writers of the Testament of the 12 Patriarchs, the Assumption of
Moses, Apocalypse of Baruch, and IV Ezra.
Concepts of Enoch are found in various New Testament books, including
the Gospels and Revelation. It is quoted
as scripture in the apocryphal Barnabas.
By the 300s A.D. it fell into disfavor in the West, because Jerome
thought it was apocryphal; Ethiopian Christians continued to use it.
The
compiler of the book of Enoch arranged his work in five books corresponding
roughly to his major sources. There is
no agreement as to the dates of the various sources. The divisions and possible dates of them as
suggested by Pfeiffer are as follows:
Introduction (Chapters 1-5, possibly written around
150-100 B.C.)
Book
I, Angels and Universe (Chapters 6-36, possibly written around 100 B.C.)
Book
II, Parables or Similitudes, (Chapters 37-71, possibly written around 100-80
B.C.)
Book
III The Heavenly Luminaries (Chapters 72-82, possibly written around 150-100
B.C.)
Book
IV, The Dream Visions, (Chapters 83-90,
possibly written around 163-130 B.C.)
Book
V, Admonitions to Righteousness (Chapters 91-105, possibly written around
100-80 B.C.)
Apocalypse
of Weeks (91:12-17 & 93:1-10, possibly written around 163
B.C.)
Conclusion (Chapters 106-108, possibly written around
100-80 B.C.; Chapters 106-107 could
be earlier.)
The
book of Enoch is usually termed an apocalypse, a description of how this
present age will end. This term applies
only to a small portion of the work. The
Introduction presents the theme of the coming punishments of the wicked and
the rewards for the righteous. In Book
I, the fallen angels are attributed to the intercourse between the sons of God
and the daughters of men. Enoch interceded
for the fallen angels, but was instructed to predict their final doom.
Book
II contains parables, although they are not parables in the rabbinic or gospel
meaning of the term. Their basic message
is the coming destruction of wickedness and the triumph of righteousness. This message is closely followed in the first
parable. The second parable shows the
Messiah, the Elect One or Son of Man, sitting on his throne of judgment. This is not a human being, but a
pre-existent, heavenly, resplendent, majestic being who possesses all dominion
and pronounces judgment. The third
parable promises rewards for the righteous.
Heavenly secrets are revealed throughout this book.
In
Jewish legend Enoch was honored as the inventor of writing, mathematics, and astronomy.
Book III is a “paper” on astronomy, and is concern with the notion that time
should be reckoned by the sun, not the moon.
Enoch uses a 364-day year, although he is aware of the 365 1/4-day
year. The last evil days will be marked
by grave disorders among the heavenly bodies.
Book
IV contains two visions that predict the future from the perspective of the
book, which was written in the guise of Enoch, who lived before the Flood. The first vision “predicts” the Flood as a
punishment upon the world because of sin, which is traced back to the fallen
angels. The second predicts the future
up to the time of the Maccabean period, which indicates the date of the
book. In the final period the heathen
will assault the Jews, but will be repulsed and swallowed up by the earth.
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Book
V predicts the judgment of the wicked and the blessed resurrection of the
righteous. Beginning with Enoch's own
time, the future is divided into 10 unequal weeks, each of which lasts for
centuries, with the tenth week being endless.
All the works of the wicked will be brought to an end, and in the ninth
week the world will be made ready for destruction. The terrors of the Judgment are portrayed. In the hereafter the wicked will be punished,
eternally, in Sheol, whereas the righteous will enjoy the bliss of heaven.
In
the Conclusion, the first two chapters relate the birth of Noah and predict the
increase of sin following the Flood until the Messiah comes. The final chapter reverts to the theme of
dire punishments that await the wicked and the rewards assured to the
righteous. It is exceedingly difficult,
if not impossible, to state the actual views of the compiler. But the summation of its contents reveals the
indebtedness of early Christianity to this book, or to writings and traditions
of a similar character.
On
the deeply indented western coast of Asia Minor a number of river valleys
descend to the sea and provide natural channels of travel and favorable
locations of great cities. Although the
Cayster River of Ephesus was smaller than the rivers on either side, it emptied
into a good harbor and also gave excellent access to the valleys of both the
Hermus and the Maeander rivers.
In
ancient times a gulf of the Aegean Sea evidently extended inward to where the
city was. The natural harbor provided by
this gulf was gradually filled up with the silt of the Cayster; efforts to
deepen the harbor only hastened the process of filling it in. In spite of these
difficulties and because of its advantageous situation in other respects,
Strabo reports that in his time Ephesus was growing daily and was the “largest
emporium in Asia this side of the Taurus.”
Today the ancient city’s ruins lie in a swamp 6 or 8 km. inland from the
sea.
In 356 B.C., the same day as the birth of
Alexander the Great, the temple of Artemis at Ephesus was deliberately
burned. In 334 B.C., Alexander the Great
conquered the Persians at the Granicus River and Ephesus came under the
Macedonian power. The citizens of the
city had now begun to rebuild their famous temple. Alexander himself offered to pay all the
expenses, but the Ephesians declined the assistance, saying that it was
inappropriate for a god to dedicate offerings to gods.
Alexander's
successor and general Lysimachus obtained the greater part of Asia
including the city of Ephesus
Lysimachus
was defeated and slain by Seleucus I in 281 B.C.; thus Ephesus came under the
sway of the Seleucids. In 190 B.C. the
Seleucid king Antiochus III the Great was defeated at Magnesia by the Romans,
who were assisted by King Eumenes II of Pergamum; the cities of Asia then fell
under the dominion of Rome. The king
of Pergamum was given much of the holdings of Antiochus, including the city of
Ephesus. When the last ruler of
Pergamum, Attalus III Philometor, died in 133 B.C., he bequeathed his kingdom
to the Ro-mans. The victories of Pompey
and the death of Mithradates in 64 B.C. marked the complete establishment of
Roman control in the eastern Mediterranean.
Under the reign of Caesar Augustus the benefits of general peace were
enjoyed, and in 29 B.C. the Ephesians dedicated a sacred precinct to Rome and
to Caesar.
EPHRON (עפרונ, gazelle) A strongly fortified city between Karnaim
and Beth-shean in the Maccabean period.
It tried to prevent the passage of Judas and the Israelites with him,
but Judas assaulted the city and took it, slaying all it male inhabitants and
despoiling the city. (See also the Biblical entry).
AE-33
EPICUREANS (Epikoureioi) Adherents of a school of philosophy founded
by Epicurus, who was born on the island of Samos in 341 B.C. and died at Athens
in 270.
In
322 shortly after he had completed his military service, he and his family were
forced to leave Samos and to take up life as poverty-stricken refugees. Here he developed his philosophy, primarily a
doctrine of deliverance from fear of gods and men, pain and death; and a way to
happiness. Friends and followers bought
him a house and garden at Athens, where he lived and taught for the rest of his
life. The Garden became the center of a
community which offered a haven of friendship and simplicity of life to people
of all levels of society and reputation.
His disciples carried his message to all parts of the Greek world and
beyond.
Epicurus’
philosophy was primarily a system of ethics and a doctrine of the validity of
sense impressions. Political theory
held no interest for him whatever. Gods,
angels and demons, worship and sacrifices, mystery initiations, oracles and
magic have no place in his system.
Religion is the great enemy, the begetter of monstrous deeds and breeder
of needless terrors. Gods do indeed
exist, living a life of endless bliss, with no concern for man. Their tranquility is full realization of the
life to which men should seek to attain.
Epicurus
held that the one end of life is happiness, the first prerequisite to its
attainment is deliverance from the fear of the gods. He further developed the atomic theory which
Democritus had originated a century earlier.
Atoms are in constant movement and have the power to swerve in their
courses, thus giving rise to the manifold forms of living things. No divine assistance is needed to bring forth
such a world. The soul, like the body is
a composite of atoms, of material though refined substance, penetrating the
spaces between the grosser atoms of which the body is composed. The Epicureans would certainly scoff at Paul
when he spoke of resurrection of the dead, and would not be among those who
said: “We will hear you again about this.”
The
happiness which Epicurus set as the end of human life was no ignoble
self-indulgence. He and his Garden
community lived chastely and frugally, holding that the physical union of the
sexes is productive of far more harm than good.
The ideal of life was found in ataraxia, a tranquility incapable of
being shaken by any conceivable disaster.
The great unfailing spring of happiness is friendship, philia,
which in Epicureanism comes closer to the Christian virtue of love, or agape,
than anything else in antiquity. The
philosophy of Epicurus has no history.
The teachings of the master were treated as unalterable dogma.
EPIPHANES (EpifanhV) A title or surname assumed by the Syrian tyrant
Antiochus IV, when he came to throne. In
scorn for his outrageous deeds, some of the subjects of Antiochus IV later
altered the name to the nickname Epimanes, which means “mad!”
EPIPHI (Epifi) The eleventh month of the Egyptian year. During the time of the Maccabbees, Egyptian
Jews were registered from the 25th of Pachon to the 4th of Epiphi,
preparatory to their execution by order of Ptolemy; they were miraculously
delivered.
ESCHATOLOGY OF APOCRYPHA (See entry
on Judgment Days in this section)
ESDRAELON (Esdrhlon) The Greek name derived from the Hebrew word “Jezreel”
for the western portion of the Valley of Jezreel
ESDRAS, BOOKS OF. The
first two books of the Apocrypha. I
Esdras covers the same ground as the Old Testament (OT) book of Ezra and parts
of Nehemiah. II Esdras is a composite
apocalyptic work (See Apocalypses)
originally written in Greek.
Throughout
history, various collections of scripture and apocrypha have used different
titles for Ezra, Nehemiah, and our two books of Esdras (See Table below). I Esdras
once occupied a place of equal importance with the Hebrew Ezra. But the early church father Jerome was
scornful and since his day it has never been considered as part of Holy
Scripture.
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Names Given to the Books of Esdras
Familiar Name
of Book(s)
Paraphrase of II Chron.
OT OT 35-39, Ezra; Neh. 8;
Collection of Writings Ezra Nehemiah and original story
In the Greek Old Testa-
In the Greek Old Testa-
ment these books
are
known as: Esdras b Esdras b Esdras a
In Latin Vulgate
these
books are known
as: I Esdras II Esdras III Esdras
In many Latin manu-
scripts these books
I Esdras or I Esdras or III Esdras
are known as: Esdras Esdras
In the English
Great
Bible these books
are
known as: 1 Esdras II Esdras III Esdras
In the Geneva
Bible
these books are
known as: Ezra Nehemiah I Esdras
In the King James
Version these
books
are known as: Ezra Nehemiah I Esdras
A Latin apocalyptic writing with a legendary name also went by different names in the most notable literature since the original Old Testament. In the Latin Vulgate it was known as IV Esdras. In many Latin manuscripts, chapters 1-2 were called II Esdras; chapters 3-14 were called IV Esdras; and chapters 15-16 were called V Esdras. In the English Great Bible this is called IV Esdras. In the Geneva Bible this is called II Esdras. In the King James Version this is called II Esdras.
Except in one section, I Esdras covers
the same ground as the close of II Chronicles (chapters 35-36), the book of
Ezra, and part of Nehemiah, but not in the same order. There is also a section which does not correspond
with anything in the OT; it is mainly a story of a competition between three
Jewish pages at Darius’ court about what true wisdom consists of; Zerubbabel
won the contest and permission to return the Jews to Jerusalem and to rebuild
the temple. Our I Esdras begins Josiah's
Passover and ends with the account of Ezra reading the Law as in Nehemiah
7-8.
The
primary Greek OT calls Ezra-Nehemiah Esdras b; what we are calling I and
II Esdras, was called Esdras a. If Esdras a and b are
translations of Ezra-Nehemiah. then b is a painfully literal translation
and a is more than ordinarily free.
We cannot be sure that I Esdras is not merely a loose compilation. I Esdras is an unsatisfactory piece of
writing historically; it jumps back and forth through the history of the
Exile. It would satisfy the evidence to
say that the author of Esdras b felt the unsatisfactory nature of Esdras
a and improved matters by producing a very literal rendering of
Ezra-Nehemiah in Greek.
I Esdras, then, is the work of a compiler; he
used some form of Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah, and added a story from an unknown
source. The compiler's aim was to
glorify Ezra, the Law, and the worship of God, especially in the temple,
regardless of historical accuracy. On
the other hand, some parts appear more historical than Ezra-Nehemiah in that
it avoids a gap of 14 years between Ezra and Nehemiah, and places the letter
about Samarian opposition right after the decree of Cyrus, which seems a more
appropriate place for it. Probably there
was little consistency in the original Hebrew accounts of the return from
Exile; I Esdras represents one tradition, Ezra-Nehemiah another. The date of this book may be 150-100 B.C.
AE-35
Our
II Esdras is important chiefly because of its close resemblance to parts of the
New Testament. The book is a composite. Chapters 1-2 are an anti-Jewish addition to
the original Jewish description of the dramatic “last days.” The language of these two chapters often
resemble that of the gospel. Chapters
3-10 or the Salathiel Apocalypse were written around 100 A.D.; chapters 11-12
or the Eagle Vision, which is concerned with the Roman Empire and the Messiah's
coming, were written around 96 A.D.; chapter 13 or the Vision of Man is from 69
A.D.; and 14 where Ezra rewrote the sacred literature was written around 100
A.D. The last two chapters were written
around 270 A.D. Neither the final form
nor the parts from which its has been compiled are pre-Christian, but much of
the traditional Jewish material used in the first 14 chapters is
pre-Christian. It was most likely written
in Palestine, rather than Rome or Alexandria.
ESDRIS (EsdriV) A leader of the troops of Gorgias in a battle with
Judas Maccabeus.
ESTHER (APOCRYPHAL) (אסתר, star) Six passages, consisting of 105 verses
interspersed throughout the Greek version of the Old Testament. They were gathered together as a separate
book, the Additions to the Book of Esther in the Apocrypha. This expanded edition of the canonical book
was probably prepared around 100 B.C. by an Egyptian Jew who injected a
religious note into this popular story.
Addition
A is the dream of Mordecai, which would make up the beginning in the expanded
version. Addition B is the edict of
Artaxerxes against the Jews, which would come after 3:13. Addition C is the prayers of Mordecai, and Addition
D is Esther's appearance before the king; both would come after 4:17. Addition E is the decree of Artaxerxes in
behalf of the Jews, which would come after 8:12. Addition F is the interpretation of
Mordecai's dream and would come after 10:3 in the expanded version.
Jerome
first removed the Additions from their context because he did not find
them in the Hebrew text; he tacked them on to the end of Esther in an order
that did not make sense. Most scholars
now believe that the expanded Greek Esther represents a translation from the
100s B.C. or the century before Christ.
The main part was translated from the Hebrew, and the Additions were
written originally in Greek for a Greek-speaking Jewish audience in
Alexandria.
It
is generally recognized that the canonical book of Esther is distinguished from
other Old Testament literature in its absence of God references. The Additions, however are marked by a frank
expression of prayer and devotion. The
spirit of prayer is sadly defaced by a dark hostility between Gentiles and
Jews. Like the Wisdom of Solomon, it
reflects the widespread anti-Semitism of the time, which found its counterpart
in a strong Jewish argument against all heathen religions and in renewed
devotion to the ancestral faith.
ETHANUS A scribe in II Esdras 14 who was one of five who were
“trained to write rapidly.”
ETHICS IN APOCRYPHAL JEWISH
WRITINGS. Some of these works, such as Ecclesiasticus and to a
lesser extent Tobit, consist almost exclusively of ethical maxims and amount
essentially to ethical codes. Almost all
of these writings see a clear-cut distinction between right and wrong. Except for some concern, now and then, about
the prosperity of the wicked and the tribulations of the righteous, the
non-canonical writings accept the doctrine of divine reward and punishment.
The
Apocryphal literature sees divine punishment in a world beyond; the Vision of
Esdras resembles Dante's Inferno.
Other writings on the penalties waiting in the hereafter are the
Apocalypses of Abraham, Baruch, Esdras, Sophonias, and the Testament of
Isaac. One example is the Apocalypse of
Abraham, which has a vision of the infernal punishments for murder, unchastity,
theft, and avarice. The concept known in
the Talmud as “manner for manner,” where the manner of the reward or punishment
resembles that of the merit or sin, occurs often in these writings.
Old
Testament apocrypha occasionally reverts to the doctrine of punishment that
pursues a family or people throughout its generations. And people are punished for their sins even
when divinely constrained to commit those sins.
The response to this dilemma ranges from pleas for leniency to giving up
completely on trying to explain or offer a solution.
Among
the qualities rated as admirable are kindness and graciousness, and allied with
them, mercy and sympathy. Also among the
virtues is courtesy. All of this fits
well with the emphasis laid on benevolence.
Giving to the poor should not be deferred even if one's means are
scant. The rewards anticipated for benevolence
are extraordinary and include escape from affliction, preservation of one's
wealth, remission of sins, and forgiveness for one's sons and daughters.
AE-36
Benevolence
can take a variety of forms, such as food, clothes, lending, hospitality, and
visiting the sick. The objects of this
benevolence may be the widow, the fatherless, the stranger, the homeless, the
captive, the aged, and the unmarried woman in need of a dowry. The spirit in which the giving is to be done
is also important. One example is
Ecclesiasticus 4: 8, which says: “Incline your ear to the poor,
and answer him politely and humbly.”
Related
to benevolence is that type of concern for the underprivileged which we today
call social justice. The widow, the fatherless,
and the stranger are again singled out for special consideration. The release of slaves and of captives is
spoken of several times. A considerable amount is written about aiding the
under-privileged in the law court.
Like
the wisdom literature of the Old Testament, the apocryphal writing has
boundless admiration for wisdom. The
study by which knowledge is acquired is also commended. Wisdom is linked with godliness and with the “fear
of the Lord.” Nurtured by wisdom is
reverent and peace-conserving speech.
Some writings recommend “reason” as having power over impulses like
excitement, pain and fear, which hinder justice, will power, discretion, and
moderation. Other traits deemed worthy
are thrift, truthfulness, honesty, faithfulness, and courage. There is abounding admiration for
truthfulness and integrity.
The
religious rituals and the merit of their observance are occasionally considered
in apocrypha. The side of religion outside
of ritual has a concern for love towards God, simplicity, patience, humility,
and penitence. There is also stress laid
upon marriage, as for instance in Ecclesiasticus, chapters 7, 25, 26, 36, 42,
and Tobit, chapters 4 and 6. Considerable
attention is bestowed upon the duty of honoring one's parents. Among the things that are praised are good
government.
Universalism
is found from time to time in this literature.
Graciousness towards non-Jews is frequently mentioned as a proper
attitude. In the future when the Messiah
comes, the heathen as well as Israel are to enter upon the divine
redemption. But it is anticipated that
the Gentiles will come eventually to accept the Jewish outlook.
So
far as evil traits are concerned, the bad heart is seen as the root of all the
world's troubles. As wisdom is extensively
praised, it opposite is vigorously rebuked.
The unwise are characterized by an imperviousness to instruction, by
which their defect might be corrected. A
person's speech can either manifest his wisdom, or betray his folly.
The manners of speech condemned are babbling, gossip, and the betrayal
of confidences. Heavy criticism is
heaped on unfaithfulness, treachery, falsehood, and deceit.
Failure
to act in a loving way, whether out of hatred, or simply failing to visit the
sick, the widow, and the orphan is among sinful and evil traits. Neglect of the underprivileged is also
considered evil, such as delaying or withholding wages or unjust dismissal from
employment. The removal of the landmark
which indicates boundaries was considered a moral shortcoming. In fact, injustice is condemned as evil, be
the victim rich or poor. Among the other
qualities held to be evil are vindictiveness, covetousness, avarice, theft,
dishonesty, bribery, drunkenness, and gluttony.
Dishonesty includes using false measurement in weighing goods.
Vehemently
reprobated are violence and strife.
Murder is abhorred. There are
frequent references which condemn the improprieties of sex. Among the evils connected with sex is
jealousy. Stigmatized also are perversions
such as homosexuality. This literature
also dwells upon pride and envy; mention is made of irreverence toward the
aged. In matters of ritual, the worst of
sins is idolatry. For resistance to
idolatry, praise is bestowed upon Abraham, King Josiah, Daniel, Mattathias, and
Judas Maccabee. The superstitions of
belief in dreams, divination, sooth-sayings, witchcraft, ventriloquism, as well
as child sacrifice are condemned.
We
have examined the moral judgments to be found in the non-canonical Jewish
writings, but the picture does not prevail uniformly. Commingled with the view of God saving all
peoples is the view that the world was created for the Jews. The aversion to war in many passages is
offset by many other passages in which war is glorified. And when it comes to international conflict,
revenge no longer meets with disapproval.
When treachery is inflicted upon a national enemy, it becomes a virtue
and cruelty becomes something excellent.
In passages, pleasure is expressed at the furious suppression of
nonconformist cults.
AE-37
Non-canonical
writing is also not unanimous as regards loyalty to the state. There are passages which urge the rigid
disciplining of servants, of children and even of one's wife. The admonition about accepting advice has its
opposite in Ecclesiasticus 37, which counsels thinking for oneself. There are even verses in Ecclesiasticus 12
and Enoch 51 which offsets the many praises of almsgiving and generosity.
The
idea of the righteous in heaven praying for the damned is contrasted by reports
that God keeps the righteous from hearing the damned so as to prevent such
prayers. While there is doctrine and
phrases common to both biblical and non-canonical writing, there are definite
differences in the 2 sets of writing, which reflect political and cultural
factors involved in the transition from the biblical to the non-canonical.
ETHNARCH (eqnarchV, governor, chief, head) A title with an original meaning of “ruler
of the people”; it is often translated as “governor.”
“Ethnarch”
was apparently a title of royalty granted to a dependent monarch; it was higher
than “tetrarch” but lower than “king.”
The preceding definition supposes a use of the title in a situation in
which a people resident in its own land was governed by a ruler who was subject
to the Roman authority. There were situations
in which a community was located outside Judea, as in Alexandria in Egypt, and
was there subject to Roman rule.
Josephus reports that an ethnarch was installed there, who governs the
people and judges lawsuits and supervises contracts and ordinances.
EUGNOSTOS, LETTER OF A
Gnostic writing in Coptic found at Chenoboskion in 1946. In this writing Sophia Pangeneteira is the
feminine counterpart of Soter, the bisexual creator of all things. They produce six bisexual spirits, the sixth
of which is the masculine Archgeneter and the feminine Pistis Sophia. The Wisdom of Jesus is based upon this
epistle; Pistis Sophia is the name of one of the ages or eras of creation.
EUMENES (EumenhV
, well-disposed) Mentioned in I Maccabee 8 as a king to
whom the Romans had given much Syrian territory. He ruled in Pergamum from 197-158 B.C.
EUPATOR (Eupatwr
, of a noble father) A surname or title given to the Seleucid king
Antiochus V (See Antiochus entry,
#5), presumably because he was the son of Antiochus Epiphanes.
EUPOLEMUS (EupolemoV , skillful in war)
A Jewish ambassador. He was
sent by Judas Maccabeus, after the victory over Nicanor to Rome to make an
alliance in 161 B.C. There was also a
historian by that name during this time; it could be the same person.
EZORA
(Ezora) Head of a
family of Israelites who put away their foreign wives and children. The name is not found in the Ezra passages in
chapter 10 that parallel I Esdras 9.
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