M
MAASMAS (Maasman) One of the leading men who returned with Ezra from the
Exile. The corresponding name is Shemiaiah in Ezra 8.
MACCABEES, MACCABEAN REVOLT. The
Maccabees were the leaders of Judea during the last two centuries B.C., and especially (167-133
B.C.). Judas, son of Mattathias, was
nicknamed “Maccabee,” probably meaning “the Mallet-headed.” Judas’ brothers all had nicknames, also
probably reflecting physical characteristics.
In rabbinic literature the term “Hasmonean” is used instead of
“Maccabees,” which originated in the church, in the 100s A.D.
Alexander himself was favorably
disposed toward the Jews; most lived outside Judea . It was sensible policy, therefore, for Greek
strategy to curry favor with the Jews in the attempt to overcome the Persian
Empire of Darius. After Alexander’s
death in 323, General Seleucus acquired Babylonia and General Ptolemy obtained Egypt Gaza
Alexander’s empire suffered a second
major division after the Battle of Ipsus, in 301. Judea fell to
Seleucus: but Ptolemy rushed in and occupied the little, but very strategic,
country. For over a century thereafter, Judea
became a pawn and a battlefield for Syria Egypt Western Asia , including language.
The temple in Jerusalem Egypt Judea ,
while Onias retained the priestly authority; Judea
remained loyal to the Ptolemies.
Joseph then intrigued for additional
power, by bribing enough important officials to secure the post of tax
collector of Coele-Syria. Jerusalem Egypt Judea
became ever more prominent, Greek became increasingly their language of choice.
For several decades neither Syria Egypt Judea
often suffered the consequences. When Judea ’s
council decided in Syria Egypt Judea ’s efforts in his behalf.
But the storm broke loose over Judea ’s
head after 175. Seleucus IV was assassinated
and his brother, Antiochus IV Epiphanes, occupied the throne. Antiochus realized that Rome Western Asia . Accordingly,
he sought to prevent this imperialistic expansion by conquering Egypt Egypt Syria
Within
Judean Jewry, one part of the ruling class was pro-Syrian, the other
pro-Egyptian. In one major respect the
ruling class was united—namely, in the desire to imitate and assimilate the
current Greek culture. Their economic
interests impelled them to request “permission . . . to establish . . . a
gymnasium . . . and to enroll the men of Jerusalem Antioch Jerusalem
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Joseph’s
family wanted all power in their own hands.
Jason sent one of them, Menelaus, “to carry the money to the king.” Menelaus, however secured the high priesthood
for himself. Jason fought back, and
Antiochus sent a military force to Menelaus’ aid in Jerusalem Jerusalem Egypt Rome Egypt
Rumor
spread that Antiochus had died. Jason
then organized a Jewish force and attacked Jerusalem
The Maccabee Family—Most prominent
among the activists was the priestly family of Mattathias. When the king’s officer came to Modein
enforce improper sacrifice, Mattathias slew both the king’s official and the
first Jew who stepped forward to take part in the sacrifice. He proclaimed, “Let every one who is zealous
for the law and supports the covenant come out with me!” Mattathias was soon joined by many other Jews,
among them the Hasidim, who realized that in order to gain religious freedom
they would have to battle militarily and politically. Mattathias’ forces proceeded to wage war
against the Jews who had complied meekly with Antiochus’ orders.
Mattathias
knew he was dying. He called together
his sons and told them: “Simeon your
brother is wise in counsel; always listen to him; . . . Judas Maccabeus has
been a mighty warrior from his youth; he shall command the army for you.” Under Judas the revolt continued to
spread. When Apollonius mustered a large
force, Judas routed them and killed the governor. A Syrian army suffered the same fate at Beth-horon.
Meanwhile,
Antiochus’ treasury was low, and he was forced to lead an expedition to Persia Judea , where they were joined by additional forces. General Gorgias took 5,000 infantry and a
thousand horsemen, planning to catch Judas’ forces by surprise, but Judas
learned of it. He marched out to attack
those encamped at Emmaus. With his small
force of 3,000, Judas routed the much more numerous enemy. Judas turned on the forces under Gorgias and
routed them also. Lysias sent another powerful army against Judas’ force,
numbering some 10,000; Judas defeated the Syrian army of some 60,000 picked
men. Judas had “blameless priests
cleanse the temple, and in 165, on the 25th day of the ninth month
(Chislev), proper sacrifices to the Lord were offered up in the temple, amid
prayers of thanksgiving and rejoicing.
For eight days the dedication or Hanukkah
was observed.
Consolidation of Power—But Judas did
not forget that he was beset by enemies in his midst and around him. He “made war on the sons of Esau in Idumea .
. . He crossed over to attack the
Ammonites.” When the Jews in Galilee and in Gilead asked for help, it was decided that the Jews in the
North and in the East could not be abandoned.
Far off in Persia Jerusalem Antioch
Civil war
once again broke out in Syria Tripoli Antioch Syria Israel
A Syrian
army, under Bacchides was soon dispatched to punish Judas and Judea . A group of Jewish scholars, including
Hasidim, sought peace with the Syrians.
Sixty of them were arrested and slain in one day. Next, the king sent Nicanor, who hated and
despised Israel
Judas now
went beyond the purely military range of leadership. He initiated a pact of friendship with Rome
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Jonathan
then turned again to the diplomatic field of battle. He sent an embassy to Rome Syria Judea .
Simon
rebuilt the fortresses of the land and stored food in them, and then offered
his support to Demetrius II. Demetrius
agreed, and renounced forever all Syrian claims to Judea ,
including release from paying tribute.
In 144 B.C., the yoke of the Gentiles was removed from Israel Judea .
For Simon’s
reign and the succeeding Hasmoneans, see
the Hasmonean entry earlier in this section.
MACCABEES, BOOKS. A group of historical and
quasi-historical books concerned with the struggle of Judaism for survival
under the pressure of forcible adaptation to Greek culture. All four books were cherished by the early
church for their inspiration to faith and loyalty during persecution. Ta
Makkabaika, (“The Things Maccabean) was employed as a designation of both I
and II Maccabees, but it was probably used originally only for II Maccabees,
since the name Maccabeus belongs properly to Judas. The titles III and IV Maccabees are commonly
employed to designate two other books, through an extension of the Maccabee to
refer to any Jewish martyr in the struggle against Greek culture.
I
Maccabees—As seen above, the designation “Maccabees” cannot be
original. More appropriate would be “The
book of the Hasmonean House, because the concern of the book is with all the
sons of Mattathias. Early Hebrew and
Aramaic writings do know the term “Maccabee,” but employ the term
“Hasmonean.” The Hebrew translation of
Josephus declared: “The rest is written in the Book of the House of the Hasmoneans.” Several scholars have sought to recover from
Eusebius’ writing a similar Semitic title.
After a brief account of the origin of Greek rule in
the East, the book sketches briefly the background of the Maccabean revolt
against the Seleucid king Antiochus Epiphanes and the leadership of Mattathias
and then portrays the military and political careers of Judas, Jonathan, and
Simon. I Maccabees teaches the
continuing providence of God over his people Israel
The Maccabees were agents of God’s
salvation from pagan oppressors.
Mattathias, burning with zeal for the law sparked the Maccabean
Revolt. Judas was the “savior of Israel Israel Israel
Dates in I Maccabees are regularly
according to the “year of the kingdom of the Greeks.” The era is that of the “Syrian Kingdom Syria
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Recent research has led to
separating the dates used into those from official Syrian sources, and those
from Jewish sources. First, the Syrian
dates are all general, not giving the number or name of the month. They are especially related to general events
of Syrian history. Second, the Jewish
dates are mostly very precise, often including both month and day. They are concerned with internal Jewish
affairs or with Syrian history directly affecting Judea . These two groups of dates seem to find their
best resolution if one calculates the year’s beginning in each case from the
year 312.
With its detailed information it is
scarcely conceivable that I Maccabees was written without aid from written
sources. Numerous documents are quoted,
and there is growing conviction that most, if not all, are genuine. They usually interrupt the flow of the
narrative, but this may be readily explained by the introduction of a different
literary source on the part of the original author. I Maccabees mentions a probable source for
its quoted documents, the archives of the chief priest in the temple treasury. The events dated according to the official
Seleucid era are prominent events of Syrian history. For this information the author seems to have
been dependent upon a Greek or Aramaic chronicle.
The fact that half the book is
devoted to a period of only seven years (166-160), whereas the remaining half covers
25 years, suggests the dependence upon a special document for the period of
Judas’ leadership. The present account
of Mattathias contains with it a section which originally belonged to the
biography of Judas. It is probable that
this piece originally referred to “Judas and his friends,” and was changed to
“Mattathias and his friends” in I Maccabees.
The stories of Mattathias in chapter
2 give structure and coherence to the entire book, for here we meet his
sons. Besides the section from the biography
of Judas mentioned earlier, there are two legends of Mattathias: his heroic
withdrawl to Modein, and his final testament to his sons. The author of I Maccabees made brilliant use
of the Mattathias legends in tying together his entire narrative of the
Maccabean movement.
Judas’ brothers Jonathan and Simon
became high priests. In this capacity
they doubtless followed the ancient custom of keeping official chronicles of
the outstanding events of each year. The
assumption that such annals had been kept since the time of Jonathan would
explain satisfactorily the accurate and carefully dated deeds of Jonathan and
Simon. In the case of John, one is
directed to the annals.
Interspersed through the book are a
number of poetic sections. The author
may have composed some of these poems himself.
Yet some or all may have been borrowed from a body of Maccabean
psalms. The genuineness of the final
chapters has been contested by many scholars because the Jewish historian
Josephus discontinued his use of I Maccabees as his historical source after the
selection of Simon as high priest.
Josephus’ abandonment of I Maccabees at this point is easily explained
as a falling back upon an earlier work of his, Jewish Wars. There may have
been some use of I Maccabees for the latter part of Simon’s rule.
I Maccabees was originally composed
in the Hebrew language. The author of
this book undertook an official history of the Hasmonean house, beginning with
Mattathias and reaching its climax in the hereditary rule of Simon; the history
appears to be non-partisan. Though the
final verses seem to indicate that John’s rule was well advanced, there is
nothing to indicate that the annals of his priesthood had been completed. John’s reign closed with an open rupture
between him and the Pharisees.
(See
the main section entry for the effects this book had on the New Testament.)
II
Maccabees—The book may well have been qualified by the adjective “Maccabean”
from the beginning, since it has to do primarily with Judas Maccabeus. II Maccabees is introduced by two epistles
from the Judean Jews to their brethren in Egypt
1. God’s blessing of Jerusalem
2. God’s punishment of Jerusalem
3. God’s merciful deliverance of the Jews and the re-consecration
of the temple.
4. God’s loyal support of Judas and his men in their numerous
victories.
5. God’s
self-manifestation in his defense of Jerusalem
defeat of Nicanor.
6. Epilogue
The sanctity of the temple is the
unifying theme of the entire narrative.
The Jerusalem
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God’s approach to goodness dominates
the book, for everywhere God’s perfect justice is maintained. God is quick to scourge God’s own in order to
keep them from further sin; but God is forbearing with the heathen until their
sins are ripe for a final judgment. Monotheism and God’s sovereignty are
stressed, not only by the narrative, but also by the titles given God; each
title is that which best suits the historical context.
The battles in which the Jews engage
include the participation of angels. The
coming of a good angel renders the Hebrew armies invincible. On the other hand, the forty-day apparition
of contending cavalries charging over Jerusalem
II Maccabees follows the official
system of calculating the beginning of the Seleucid era from the autumn of 312
B.C. Where I and II Maccabees use the
Syrian calendar, the dates agree; where I Maccabees uses a Jewish dating, they
do not. The author of II Maccabees names
the principal source of his historical summary as the five-volume work of Jason
of Cyrene. Some incidents are an
elaboration of a simpler narrative in Jason’s work. Other materials are so highly condensed that
they appear to be a hasty summary of events told more fully in the original
source. The summary we have omitted
whole episodes. The book divides into
five clear-cut divisions, corresponding to the main ideas given above. Each of these with a summary statement
marking the formal close. To the summary
are prefixed letters from the Palestinian Jews to those of Egypt
Since Judas’ career is presented in
close agreement with the life of Judas employed by I Maccabees, it is likely
that Jason used the same biography and elaborated with oral legends not used in
the first book. For his knowledge of
profane history, Jason may have consulted a Seleucid chronicle. Jason must have also had access to the archives
of the temple, if we are to believe in the genuineness of the documents cited
in the summary. Jason must have visited
the Holy Land .
The origin and genuineness of the
introductory letters and the errors in historical sequence can best be
explained as the work of an author who had more concern for literary
effectiveness than for historical accuracy.
This is evidenced by the fact that these passages cannot be merely
reshuffled to restore the historical accuracy of the text, for they are
clearly integrated in their present context.
It appears unnecessary to attribute either the introductory epistles or
the errors in sequence to an editor; the prologue and the epilogue and prologue
reflect an author who felt free to rearrange or omit as suited his intention.
The summary writer was skilled in the use of words and wrote good literary
Greek; the original language was certainly Greek. Judas Maccabeus, the chief hero of the book,
is presented as the leader of the Hasideans.
In all his prayers and speeches, Judas is a true Hasid; religious rather
than military reasons are given for several of his actions.
It has been pointed out that
knowledge of the first two books of the Maccabees is necessary for an
understanding of the historical allusion of Daniel. It is likewise important to note the influence
exercised by Daniel upon II Maccabees and his Jason of Cyrene. The martyrs of II Maccabees act with the
courage and piety of Daniel and his three companions in refusing to compromise
with paganism. They also trust in the
resurrection of the dead and in angels.
There is also a close conceptual
relationship with the ancient military manual known the War of the Sons of
Light and the Sons of Darkness. Both
works give a prominent place to the restoration of the temple and its cult;
fighting is avoided during the sabbatical years. Since the Essenes, who possessed the scroll,
evolved from the Hasideans, once more the affinities reinforce the Hasidic
character of II Maccabees.
The first introductory letter, dating
from around 124 B.C., was written during the rule of Simon’s son John
Hyrcanus. It is only in the second
introductory letter that there in direct allusion to the Hasmonean dynasty
established by Simon. The work of Jason,
upon which the summary writer depended, would be earlier in the rule of
John. Jason and the author of I
Maccabees appear to have labored independently, using common sources. Evidence supports the view that the book was
written in Egypt Alexandria
(See
the main section entry for the effects this book had on the New Testament.)
III
Maccabees—The present name is a misnomer.
It is more accurately described as a book about the Ptolemies, the
Egyptian rulers of Greek descent. It has
definite affinities with II Maccabees and its history precedes that of II
Maccabees, making it an excellent prologue to it.
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The book presents three stories of conflict
between Ptolemy Philopator and Judaism.
The first is his attempt to enter the sanctuary of the Jerusalem Temple Alexandria
III Maccabees is intended as
instruction to make Jews more steadfast in their faith and practice and as a
warning to all would-be persecutors. The
book is so replete with obvious exaggerations and miracles that a cursory
reading suggests a historical romance.
Yet the author’s account of the Battle of Raphia is remarkably close to
a Greek historian’s account of the same battle.
Ancient monuments which still exist attest to Philopator’s lavish
expenditures upon temples. According to
III Maccabees and the Greek historian this included Jerusalem Cyprus
The Jews’ political rights in Alexandria
Since Alexandria
The book could not have been written
prior to the 100s B.C. The author
probably knew Ester and Daniel only in the enlarged Greek version. The author’s intention was to prepare a
religious scroll to meet the inspirational and instructional needs of the
distinctive festivals of Egyptian Jewry.
Though it has been claimed that the word used for “census” is
distinctively Roman, the word may have been used in a non-technical pre-Roman
sense of an enrollment for general purposes of administration and taxation.
(See
the main section entry for the effects this book had on the New Testament.)
IV
Maccabees—This is the common name of this book in Greek manuscripts. Because the Jewish historian Josephus was
wrongly credited with writing it, it appears among his works, entitled On the Supremacy of Reason. The book contains a philosophic discourse on
the supremacy of religious reason over all passions of body and soul. The greatest demonstration of the author’s proposition,
however, is to be found in the heroism of those who died for their religion.
The book is dedicated to the proposition that the law
is the most authentic expression of true philosophy. “Reason, then, is the intellect choosing with
correct judgment the life of wisdom . . .” Reason is frequently denominated
“religious wisdom.” By claiming that God
designed Jewish food laws in accordance with that which was fit for the soul.,
the author equates the law of Moses with natural law.
The human passions are capable of an
Aristotelian division into pleasure and pain; associated with these are desire,
joy fear, and grief. The inclination to
evil is derived from rabbinic Judaism, wherein the evil stands opposed to the
good. Equally Jewish is the author’s
repudiation of the Stoic notion that the sage achieves freedom from passion. Virtue is achieved by the subjection of
emotions to religious reason.
Judaism may boast of her
philosophers, of whom the priest Eleazar and the seven youths are outstanding
examples. They believe that it is better
to suffer than to do evil. By choosing
death in preference to apostasy, the noble “Maccabees” reveal that they possess
the qualities of: prudence; justice; courage; and self-control. The amazing endurance of these martyrs proves
that “Hebrews alone are invincible in virtues’ cause.”
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As with Socrates and Plato, the
ultimate moral sanctions are rooted in eternal life with God for the righteous,
but eternal punishment for the wicked.
Immortality, as in Greek thought, seems to be wholly spiritual. The most astonishing doctrine is the
expiatory power of the blood of the martyrs.
It dissolves the power of tyranny, cleanses the fatherland, and renews
the observance of the law. Like the
blood of Abel, it calls down the wrath of God upon the wrongdoer. The book has variously assessed as: a sermon;
a diatribe; and a eulogy for Maccabean martyrs.
The historical material of the book
seems to be dependent upon II Maccabees.
The only alternative to the use of this book is a possible dependence
upon Jason of Cyrene. The genuineness of
two sections has been questioned. Parts
of chapters 17 and 18 interrupt the context and do not accord in language or
tenor with the rest of the book.
Since IV Maccabees was composed to
commemorate those “who at this season died,” one is led to inquire as the
identity of the “season.” Even though the
book was written as a memorial, it could not have been intended for delivery at
the place of burial—the only allusion to the tomb being wholly rhetorical. The stories are highly embellished legends
which record the execution of Eleazar as taking place at a common trial with
the seven youths and their mother. Since
the Christian commemoration of August 1 approximates the Jewish Ninth of Ab
lamentations of the destruction of the first and second temples, it may have
been borrowed from a synagogue at Antioch
The Feast of Dedication would be
most apt of all for commemoration of Maccabean martyrs. The doctrine of the inviolability of the
temple while the law is faithfully observed is borrowed from II Maccabees. Since the deaths of the “Maccabees” under
torture have undone the desecration of the tyrant, the book would be
appropriate for the Feast of Dedication.
One might expect some allusion to the noble Hasmonean house in the book,
but in pious circles the Hasmoneans fell more and more into ill repute, and our
author represents the deliverance as achieved through martyrdom rather than by
military prowess.
The book was written in a
semi-classical style of Greek by a writer versed in Greek philosophy, who
addressed a Jewish audience expected to follow his learned reasoning. This suggests that he was a Jew of the
Diaspora, from a place where Greek philosophy was assimilated by Judaism, such
as Alexandria Antioch
As already seen, the book was
written while the temple was still standing.
Also, the title of Apollonius as “governor of Syria Phoenicia Cilicia ” indicates the period of 18-55 A.D., which is further
limited by the fact that the persecution by Caligula occurred from 38-39 and is
not known by those who heard the eulogy.
So, then, IV Maccabees was written between 18 and 37 A.D.
(See the main section entry for the
effects this book had on the New Testament.)
The books of Maccabees, along with
other apocrypha and books written under an assumed famous name, owe their
preservation solely to the church, which cherished them as historical works of
God’s people Israel
As regards historical and religious
value, I Maccabees compares favorably with Kings, II Maccabees with Chronicles
(i.e. not very historical), and III Maccabees with Esther; IV Maccabees is
without any counterpart in the Bible.
For biblical scholarship, the concept of canon is an irrelevance; for
all literature is welcome material of study.
The Maccabean books are also appreciated for themselves as the religious
literature of God’s chosen people, wherein great truths often find apt
expression.
MACCABEUS (MakkabaioV) Surname of Judas, son of Mattathias, who gave
the name to his family and to their celebrated revolt against the Syrian king. Most likely the word from which it is derived
does not mean a heavy hammer, but a small workman’s tool.
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The founder of the Macedonian
kingdom was Perdikkas I, who reigned in the first half of the 600s B.C. He was succeeded by Philip I, Amyntas I,
Alexander I (480-450 B.C.), Perdikkas II (450-413), Archelaus (413-399). The last did more than all his predecessors
to build up the roads and the military forces of Macedonia Macedonia
Philip II was assassinated by his
son, who at 20, acted swiftly to claim the kingdom. In his 11-year meteoric career, Alexander the
Great accomplished such amazing conquests that by the time of his death in
Babylon in 323 B.C. that the Macedonian name belonged to an empire extended
from his native highlands to the Nile and the Indus.
The regent of Macedonia
In 168 B.C., Perseus, King of
Macedonia was defeated at the Battle of Pydna by the Roman L. Aemilius Paullus.
In the settlement made in 167, Macedonia Macedonia Macedonia Asia
and the West; the Romans constructed the famous Via Egnatia before 125 B.C., a
distance of 532 km across mostly mountainous terrain.
MACHAERUS (MacairouV) The strongest Jewish castle, after Jerusalem Dead
Sea . Herod the Great refortified it and used it as
one of his chief residences. The
fortress became a stronghold of the Jews in the war against the Romans (66-70
A.D.).
MACHPELAH (המכפלה, the double
cave) A place in the center of modern Hebron Hebron
From the patriarchal days to the Roman period, nothing is
known of the tombs of the patriarchs. The book of Jubilees mentions frequently
a tower or house of Abraham which played a role in the conflict between the
Jews and the Idumeans. Also preserved in this book is a memory of some kind of
monument at the site of the tomb of the patriarchs, of which there is no longer
any trace.
MACRON (Makrwn)
A name of the Ptolemy who,
according to II Maccabee 10, was governor of Cyprus
MAKED (MakeD) A city in Gilead
from which Judas Maccabeus rescued the Jews who were threatened by their Greek
neighbors. The site is unknown.
MALLUS (MallwtwV (mal lo tos))
A Cilician city of considerable size situated in the southeastern part of the
region on the River Pyramus at the head of the river delta. The city joined with Tarsus
MANASSEH, PRAYER OF.
A short penitential psalm of
15 verses ascribed to king Manasseh. In
contrast to II Kings 21-24, he is represented as being taken prisoner to Babylon
The prayer opens with a long apostrophe in which God is
addressed as God of the fathers and of the righteous, creator and orderer of
all things, punisher of sin, and dispenser of mercy. He has appointed repentance, not for the
righteous, but for sinners. Manasseh
promises that if God in his mercy will forgive him, he will continually praise
him as long as he lives. The prayer,
with its mixture of universal and particularistic elements, is typical of
Judaism of the postexilic period. The
Prayer of Manasseh breathes a spirit of genuine piety and devotion.
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The exact origin of our document is an unsolved
problem. Its contents, form, diction,
and history all point to a relatively late date, between 100 B.C.-100 A.D. Its form and content and the Jewish legends
about Manasseh point to Jewish authorship.
The repentance of Manasseh was subject to much legendary embellishment
and speculation. The underlying motivation
was doubtless to explain how the king could have enjoyed so long a reign. The narrative in II Kings blamed the
Babylonian captivity and the destruction of Jerusalem
The original language of the prayer is also in
doubt. The admittedly Semitic structure
and Semiticisms suggests Hebrew or Aramaic; but these are not enough to make a Greek
original impossible. The earliest surviving
text is actually in a Syrian church manual from 200-250 A.D. The Greek is found in Codex Alexandrinus of
the 400s. In English the prayer first
appears in the Wyclif Bible, reflecting the Latin tradition.
MANIUS, TITUS. One of the ambassadors of the Romans to the nation of
the Jews bringing greetings in 165 B.C.
Attempts at further identification have been unsuccessful.
MARCHESHVAN. The Hebrew form of the Akkadian-Babylonian name
Arahsamna, meaning “eight month” (October-November). It occurs first in Aramaic papyri of the Jews
in the Egypt
MARESHAH (מרשה, what is at the head) A Canaanite city which became the chief
city of a Shephelah district of Judah, located 1.6 km southeast of Beit
Jibrin. During the Exile the Idumeans
(Edomites) infiltrated southern Judah
The spread of Greek culture in this part of the Near East was so rapid that the Sidonians began to use Greek names after a
couple of generations. Marisa was a
center for the Idumean slave trade as a record of Zeno from 259 B.C.
indicates. During the Maccabean period
Marisa remained important. It was
captured by John Hyrcanus (134-104 B.C.), who granted the Idumeans permission to
remain if they submitted to circumcision.
In 63, Pompey restored Marisa to the Idumeans. By order of Caesar,
Idumea was again annexed to Judea in 47 B.C.
Herod, Antipater’s son, fled to Marisa to escape Antigonus and his
Parthian allies. In 40, Marisa was
captured and destroyed by the Parthians; it was never rebuilt.
It
was first fortified by the high priest Jonathan. In 42 B.C., Helix, an opponent of the
brothers Herod and Phasael, came into temporary possession the stronghold. Herod soon recovered the citadel and made it
a haven for his family. One of Herod’s
first moves after his return was to force Antigonus to lift his siege of Masada . Herod began serious work on the fortress and
made it a monument to his genius as a builder and military strategist.
MASIAH
(MasiaV) Head
of a family of “sons of Solomon’s servants” who returned with Zerubbabel.
MATTATHIAS (MattaqiaV) 1. Mattathias
I, the father of the Hasmoneans. A
member of the priestly family of the priestly family of Jehoiarib. Mattathias defied King Antiochus’ decree of
violation of the law by refusing to sacrifice to heathens and slaying an
offender. His motto was: “Let everyone who is zealous for the law . .
. come out with me!” He led for one year
and died in 168/167 B.C. at the age of 146.
His last will and testament to his sons was: “Obey the ordinance of the
law.” The rabbis spoke of Mattathias in
glowing terms; he is remembered in special Hanukkah prayers.
2. Mattathias
II, third son of Simon the Hasmonean. He
was murdered by Ptolemy.
3. Son of Absalom;
one of Jonathon’s captains who escaped ambush.
4. Son of Ananos
appointed by Agrippa I as high priest.
5. Mattathias
ben Margalit, a scribe who rebelled against Herod. Mattathias and Judas incited young men to pull down the large golden eagle Herod
had erected over the gate of the temple.
6. The father of
Josephus; descendant of a distinguished priestly family.
7. Mattathias
ben Theophilus, a native of Jerusalem
8. Son of
Theophilus; appointed high priest in 65 A.D. by Agrippa II. He succeeded Jesus
ben Gamaliel, but was deposed before the siege.
MR-9
MEDEBA
(מידבא, water of rest) A city in Transjordan , about 24 km southeast of the entrance of the Jordan Dead Sea . In Maccabean times, John Maccabee was
ambushed just outside Medeba. Jonathan
and Simon avenged themselves by killing a wedding party of their enemies in the
same place. Later John Hyrcanus, Simon’s
son, captured Medeba after a six-month siege.
MEDIATOR. Wisdom
appears in the Old Testament as practical knowledge, but it rises to
theological significance when understood as the principle of order in the
universe, the enlightener of humankind, and the agent of God in the creation of
the universe, existing independently of God.
Two passages in the Apocrypha leave no doubt as to the substantive
independence of wisdom. The extra
feature found in Ecclesiasticus is the conception of the embodiment of wisdom
in the Torah or law of Israel Israel
The concept of the Word of God or Logos
developed after Greek philosophy had begun to influence Judaism. The Greek word Logos is translated “Word” but always signifies thought, reason,
and rational principle. For Plato the
Logos mediated between this imperfect world and the higher world of perfect
archetypes. Later Platonists were more
inclined to regard it as divine. In
Stocism, Logos was reason immanent in the world as natural law, as the power
that sustains the world, and as the mental power of individuals. The differentiation of Logos from God is seen
first in Philo the Jew of Alexandria. He
makes Logos the instrument by which the world was created, but it is neither personal nor
pre-existent. At this time, Logos is the
medium both of God’s providential control of the world and of human knowledge
of God.
The
later Judaism continued to think of the Spirit as power and heightened
vitality. The living voice of a prophet
was no longer heard, but the prophets of old were believed to have been
prompted by the Spirit. The idea of the
Spirit as a cosmic potency is found in the Wisdom of Solomon and Philo. Much of what is said about the activity of
wisdom in the Wisdom of Solomon might equally well be said of the Spirit.
MELCHIEL (Melcihl) Charmis’ father, one of the Bethulian magistrates to whom Judith appealed
for aid.
MEMMIUS, QUINTUS (KointoV MemmioV) A Roman envoy who brought a letter to the Jewish
people.
MENELAUS
(MenelaoV) An
unscrupulous and usurping high priest, in the reign of Antiochus
Epiphanes. The high priest Jason sent
him to Antioch
Menelaus bribed Andronicus, an Antioch Jerusalem Jerusalem Jerusalem
MENESTHEUS (MenesqeuV) The
father of Apollonius, the governor of Coele-Syria and Phoenicia
MERRAN
(Merran) A
place name, derived by an error in writing the Hebrew word “Midian” in Greek
letters.
MESALOTH (maisalwq) A unknown place in Arbela taken by Bacchides and Alcimus as they marched on Judah
MR-10
MESSIAH, JEWISH. From
the confusing abundance of views on the coming of an ultimate ruler in the late
Jewish period of the 100s B.C., we can pick out only a few important
points. Apocalyptic dualism, with its
separation between this life and the life beyond had a far-reaching influence
on the messianic hope. The Son of Man (see
separate entry) was in accord with the otherworldly, universal tendencies,
an angelic being who will appear at the side of God as judge of the world. The Messiah born on earth from the line of
David, one who would lead the people of Israel to power in the time of
salvation, and rule them brilliantly, always remained a nationalistic
expectation. There also emerged a number
of other figures: a Levitic Messiah; a Messiah ben Joseph; and a Messiah ben
Ephraim.
In some apocryphal works the messianic expectation is
lacking completely (e.g. I and II Maccabees; Tobit; Judith; Baruch;
Ecclesiasticus; Wisdom of Solomon; Jubilees; and Assumption of Moses). The most detailed picture of the Davidic king
is drawn in the Psalms of Solomon, with considerable use of Old Testament
passages. The Messiah doctrines of the Qumran
sect is given in some rather obscure passages, and the Messiah is often
mentioned in late Jewish prayers.
A systematic theory of the Messiah
cannot be ascertained from the various sources.
A picture which is not very far removed from the Old Testament
expectations is given in the Psalms of Solomon.
The king and son of David has the task of purging Jerusalem Jerusalem Israel
Concerning the time of the coming of
the Messiah, the most divergent opinions were current. The apocalyptic writers attempted to
calculate the duration of the world era; according to others, no one but God
knows the day and hour. He will come
when the wickedness of the world has reached its peak. According to certain rabbis, penitence and
obedience to the law will hasten his coming, but other authorities deny that
the coming of the Messiah depends upon the penitence of Israel Israel Israel
When the Messiah comes, he will
destroy the hostile world powers and establish on Zion
As a result of extensive messianic
interpretation of Old Testament passages in late Judaism, the messianic king could
also acquire all kinds of prophetic traits.
A Messiah who suffers and dies
as a substitute for all in the New Testament sense was unknown; one or the
other was present in various writings.
The suffering of the Messiah is connected with his effort in
establishing the messianic kingdom, or with the fact that before he reveals
himself, he must lead a hidden and despised existence. One Jewish interpretation of Isaiah 53 reads
in part: “Then he shall pray on behalf of our transgressions and our iniquities
shall be pardoned for his sake . . . And he shall deliver the wicked unto
Gehinnam, and those that are rich in possessions which they have obtained by
violence unto the death of destruction.”
MICHMASH
(מכמש, treasure) A
Benjaminite mountain city about 11km northeast of Jerusalem Jordan Valley
In the Maccabean period Michmash was
the place of Jonathan’s residence following the withdrawl of Bacchides to Antioch Jerusalem
MIDRASH
(מדרש, commentary) The name given to that interpretation of
the Bible which emanated from the rabbinic schools in ancient Palestine
MR-11
There are two types of midrash: Halachah, which deals
with the legal parts of the Bible; and the Haggadah, deals with the non-legal
parts. The Haggadah Midrash left its
deep impression on the Bible itself.
This mass of accumulated midrashic material was arranged in separate
collections which constitute the extensive midrashic literature, presented in
the form of commentaries on different books of the Bible. The earliest of these collections are
compiled around the middle of the 100s A.D.
Of the Haggadah, the earliest is the Midrash on the Genesis, going back
in its larger part to the 200s. Other
Midrash include the Yalkut Shimeoni (a thesaurus), the Pesiktha Rabbathi
(description of special sabbaths and festival); and the ethical midrash Tanna
debe Eliyyahu (promoting the universal possession of the Holy Spirit).
The Ionian revolt against the
Persians put an end to this phase of prosperity. Miletus temple of Apollo
After the Persian defeat at Mykala
(479 B.C.), Miletus Miletus Persia Athens Miletus Roman
Empire meant increased
prosperity and trade for Miletus
MILLENIUM. The
reign of a Messiah between this present, evil age under Satan and the future,
righteous eternal age under God.
In the earlier Jewish thinking, the
messianic kingdom was combined with apocalyptic hope. One such interim period without a messiah is
the Apocalypse of Weeks. Past history is
divided into seven uneven “weeks” of time.
These seven weeks will be followed by three more: a period of
righteousness; a period of destruction; and a period of judgment. Another
period without a messiah is presented as seven “days,” with each day 1,000
years long.
Baruch (early 100s A.D.) also writes
of seven days of 1,000 years each. On
the sixth day the Son will destroy the time of the wicked one and judge the
godless; then he will rest on the seventh day.
This implies a messianic interim reign of a thousand years. In the apocryphal II Baruch, a messianic
kingdom is to endure until this world of corruption is ended. In II
Esdras, this evil and degenerate age is to be brought to an end by God. Next, the messiah will appear and reign for
400 years of rejoicing, after which the messiah will die with all who have
human breath. This will be followed by a
general resurrection and judgment.
The closest Jewish parallel to the
endtime of Revelation is in the Neo-Hebraic Apocalypse of Elijah (261
A.D.). An anti-messiah is to wage a
series of devastating wars, but the messiah will appear with angels of destruction
to destroy the nations. With this
present evil age ended, the messiah will rule in Jerusalem Jerusalem
MITYLENE (Mitulhnh)
The chief city of the Aegean island of Lesbos Asia Minor . Liberated in 479 B.C. by the
Greeks from the domination of Persia Athens
It became a popular holiday resort for Roman
leaders. The city’s acropolis and walls
were stormed and destroyed in 80 B.C. by the Romans in reprisal for a revolt
over taxation; but freedom was restored by Pompey who found asylum here from
Julius Caesar.
MOCHMUR (Mocmour)
A brook southeast of
Dothaim. Possibly it is identical with
Wadi Makhfuriyeh, south of Nablus
MR-12
MODEIN (מוﬢﬠין, declarers) The
home and burial place of the early Maccabean leaders. Modein is variously indicated as a village or
a city, located on the ancient Jerusalem-Jaffa road. Ras Medieh is a typical Palestinian tell in
the midst of the Shephelah, standing some 210 meters high.
Modein is most famed because here in 167 B.C. the aged
priest Mattathias dramatically incited his fellow townsmen to revolt against
the attempt of Antiochus IV to force the Greek culture into Jewish life. The story of that revolt continues to be one
of the great religious and national classics of Jewish literature. In this struggle Modein itself was the field
base for well-directed actions against invading armies.
In view of Jewish family customs, it
was most natural for Modein to get lasting repute as the burial place of the
heroic group of early Hasmonean leaders.
Simon “the Guide,” who outlived his four brothers, erected a monumental
family sepulcher at Modein. It was
characterized by seven pyramids, memorializing the parents and their five
sons. Apparently it was an astonishingly
permanent structure. Jerome recorded
familiarity with it in the 300s and 400s A.D.
It is all but forgotten that Modein made distinctive and personal
contribution to Judaism, through the teachings of Rabbi Eleazar. The beginning and the ending of his teaching
career were his association with Rabbi Gamaliel II.
MOLADAH
(מולדה, generation) A city
of Simeon Judah
MONEY, COINS. After
Alexander’s conquest of the Persian
Empire the unified coinage
of the new empire was valid for Palestine Palestine Egypt
The control of the Ptolemies over Judea
expired in 198 B.C. The Seleucids, heirs
of Alexander in Syria
When in 135 B.C. John Hyrcanus
followed his father as ruler, Antiochus brought the rest of the autonomy to an
end. Antiochus struck his own coins in Jerusalem
The Second Commandment did not allow
a Jew to engrave the head of the king or the emperor; thus the first coins
could only be extremely modest. The top
of these Jewish coins displayed inside a wreath the following inscription in
Hebrew: “Johanan the high priest and the community of the Jews.” From then on it remained traditionally in use
on all later Jewish issues. The title of
high priest for John Hyrcanus I does not seem strange if we consider that the
Jewish state was a hierarchy with the high priest as its leader. For the bottom of the coins a double “horn of
abundance” (cornucopia) and a poppy head were chosen. The denomination of this and the following
coins is to be understood as the second smallest unit. In the meantime the Seleucids continued to
mint silver coinage, which was the recognized currency in Palestine
Judas Aristobulus followed his
father Hyrcanus and issued his own coins for the one year of his rule. His brother Alexander Janneus (105-78 B.C.)
took over the reign and the office as a high priest. He enlarged the boundaries of the country,
and used for the first time the title “king” on his coinage, of which he issued
three types. He chose as symbols a star
whose origin and meaning are unknown, and an anchor, because he added several
harbors to his kingdom. The Greek on his
anchor coins indicates that it was intended to circulate among his non-Jewish
subjects. The last of the Maccabees,
Antigonus conquered Jerusalem
Herod I (36-4 B.C.) was appointed
king in Judea by the Romans.
He founded towns in Greek style, and sponsored Gentile temples. This didn’t prevent him from considering the
feelings of his Jewish subjects when minting coins without “graven
images.” Also, his rebuilding of the
temple in Jerusalem
MR-13
MORDECAI (מרדכי) The Jewish hero of the book of Esther. He and Esther his ward triumphed over Haman,
the evil vizier. In the conclusion of
the defeat of the Syrian armies of Nicanor by Judas Maccabee in II Maccabee,
Judas declares that “Nicanor’s day” is to be celebrated on the day before
“Mordecai’s day.” From this it has been conjectured that the Purim festival and
the story of Mordecai and Esther were devised in the beginning to celebrate and
commemorate the victory of Judas Maccabee over the Syrians. This explanation has not received general
acceptance among biblical scholars.
Jewish tradition beginning with the apocryphal Addition to the Book of
Esther has built a wealth of legend, supported by fanciful biblical exegesis
about the already largely legendary figure of Mordecai.
MOSES (משה, drawing out, deliverer) Leader
of the Hebrew tribes in their exodus from Egypt Canaan . Those
tendencies to glorify Moses which the Old Testament managed to resist, make
themselves felt in the Judaism of the late pre-Christian centuries.
In the Judaism that was influenced by Greek culture of
the 300s B.C., Moses is praised as the greatest of men, the benefactor of
humankind in his role as the father of learning and skills. For the Jewish philosopher Philo of
Alexandria, Moses is the epitome of ideal humanity, reconciler and mediator
between God and humans, and revealer of the changeless law.
A more restrained extension of the
significance of Moses takes place in Palestinian Judaism, where Moses is the
mediator of the divine word, servant of God set apart by marks of patience and
humility. The prophets can be
subordinated to Moses to the extent of asserting that he spoke their words in
addition to his own. The body of
unwritten law, cultivated so diligently by the Pharisees, is also derived from
Moses. Through ordination the spirit of
Moses is transmitted to the scribes in unbroken succession.
Several works are ascribed to Moses
in Palestinian Judaism. The dominant
interpretation of the tradition is that Moses died but that his corpse did not
decay. Moses was bodily translated into
heaven. In the former view it is
considered necessary that Moses should have died and been buried in the
wilderness. The biblical tradition that
God would raise up for his people a prophet like Moses is variously interpreted
in Judaism. In the literature of the Qumran
sect the “prophet to come” appears as one of the figures at the end of the
present age and the beginning of the messianic age.
MOSES, ASSUMPTION OF. A
Jewish writing surviving in a 500s A.D. Latin version, and probably a
combination of two earlier works, the Testament of Moses and the Assumption of
Moses. That a Jewish Assumption of
Moses once existed is attested by Origen and Clement of Alexandria, both of
whom relate Jude 9 to the assumption of Moses.
The appearance of Moses with Elijah on the Mount of Transfiguration
testifies to the early currency of the legend among Christians, if not to the
existence of the book itself. Both a Testament of Moses and an Assumption of
Moses are included in lists of apocryphal books. It is a theory that the two works were combined
at an early date and given the title of the latter work.
Moses, as death approaches is represented as giving a
charge to Joshua in which he briefly predicts the future of Israel
From here on the identification of
persons and events is quite uncertain; apparently the writer has begun to
predict events beyond his own time. A
Levite will refuse to transgress the laws of God, but will fast with his seven
sons, and then will go into a cave to await death. This period of persecution is followed by judgment. The devil will be brought to his end by an
angel and sorrow will be no more. There
will be great earthquakes; the sun will darkened; the moon will turn into
blood; and the courses of the stars will be disturbed. God will also destroy the idols of the Gentiles. Israel Rome
The Latin text is both incomplete
and corrupt; the translators have depended upon a number of changes and the
conclusion is missing. The Latin is from
a Greek text, which in turn is probably based upon a Hebrew original. The book
predicts that Herod’s reign of 34 years would be longer than that of any of his
sons, but both Philip and Antipas reigned longer. Apparently the work was composed before the
reigns of his sons had exceeded Herod’s, or before 30 A. D., i.e. in Jesus’
lifetime. And if the work was a source
for II Baruch, then its date is no later than the end of the first century
after Christ.
MR-14
The author was quite likely a
Palestinian Jew, loyal to God, to Israel
Moses was ordained from the world’s foundation
to be the covenant’s mediator for Israel
MYNDOS
(MundoV) A
city on the coast of Caria in Asia , noted for silver mines, which may have attracted
Jewish settlers. Myndos had some degree
of independence.
N
NAATHUS (NaaqoV ) One
of the sons of Addi who put away his foreign wife and children.
NABARIAH (NabariaV)
One of those standing upon
Ezra’s left hand as “he read aloud in the open square.”
NABATEANS (Nabataioi) An Arab people
playing an important role in the history of Palestine Petra Dead Sea , is the Nabatean capital.
The early history of the Nabateans is comparatively
unknown; the original home of the Nabateans was in Northwestern Arabia . From there
they came, perhaps as early as the 500s B.C. to occupy the territory of the
Edomites, who were pushed up into the south of Judah Edom Moab
The first definite date in Nabatean
history is 169 B.C., when Jason vainly sought sanctuary with Aretas, the
“tyrant” of the Nabateans. The names and
reigns are known from 95 B.C.- 106 A.D.
Aretas
II (??-95 B.C.) Malichus
I (47-30)
Obodas I (95-87) Obodas III
(30-9)
Rabel I (87) Aretas IV (9 B.C. – 40
A.D.)
Aretas III (87?-62) Malichus
II (40-70)
Obodas II (62-47) Rabel II
(70-106)
During the greater part of this period
there were wars between the Nabateans and the Jews. Territorial and economic rivalry soon brought
the two peoples into conflict. The
fortunes of these wars swayed to and fro, but the general result was that the
Nabateans established themselves in the Northern part of Transjordan . In 85 B.C. Aretas III was summoned by the citizens of
the free city of Damascus
Before their entrance into Palestine Edom Moab Arabia to the southeast, to Damascus Gaza Alexandria
MR-15
Their language must originally have
been a form of Arabic, but the inscriptions from the latter period of the
kingdom are written in Aramaic. In fact,
some of the inscriptions are partly in Aramaic and partly in Greek. The alphabet that they used in their Aramaic
inscriptions is a distinctive one; it has letters similar to ancient Hebrew,
and is in fact an intermediate stage between Hebrew and Arabic.
The Nabatean religion took the same
course as that of the early Israelites in that it added the deities of other
countries to its own. Their supreme god
was Dushara; others were Allat, Ara, and several others. In time, they worshipped Hadad, the
storm-god; Atargatis, the fish-goddess; and Gad the god of luck. The kings beginning with Obodas I were
regularly deified. In addition to being
clever traders and skilled agriculturists, the Nabateans were fine artists in
pottery and sculpture. They also
accomplished amazing engineering feats.
NADAB (נדב, liberal) Nephew of Ahikar. When Tobias returned with Sarah, his bride,
Nadab and his uncle Ahikar came to the marriage ceremony. Somehow, Nadab “brought Ahikar from light
into darkness. . . Ahikar gave alms and
escaped the deathtrap which Nadab had set for him; but Nadab fell into the trap
and perished.” Tobit, as part of his
dying counsel, bids his son remember “what Nadab to Ahikar.”
NADABATH. A Transjordan city northwest of Medeba. Jonathon and Simon Maccabee revenged the
capture and execution of their brother John by the Jambrites between these two
cities; they ambushed a wedding procession.
NANEA. A temple in Persia
NAPHTHA. An inflammable substance. This is referred to as “nephthar; the term is
interpreted as meaning “purification.”
NASH PAPYRUS. A pre-Christian papyrus containing the Decalogue
(Exodus 20) and the Shema (Deut.
6). The writing may be assigned
to somewhere in the Maccabean period, between 165 and 37 B.C. It was purchased by W. L. Nash from a native
Egyptian dealer.
NATHANAEL (נתנאל, God has given) 1. A priest required by Ezra to dismiss his
foreign wife.
2. An ancestor
of Judith.
NATIONALITY. The Old Testament book of Daniel attests the Jewish struggle for
religious and political independence.
The Maccabean period was marked by a new sense of nationality. The spirit of patriotism was kept alive by
the book of Judith. The Additions to
Esther supplied the religious element lacking in the main part of Esther, and
revealed a high feeling for nationality.
Ecclesiasticus carries a note of nationalistic sentiment, urging that
certain aspects of the national faith were beneficial in maintaining the
separateness of the Jewish nation. The
book of Jubilees defends Jewish nationality by permitting no interrelations.
NICANOR (Nikanwr, conqueror) 1.
A general of Antiochus Epiphanes and an enemy of the Jews. He was one of the generals who in 166 B.C.
were sent to put down the revolt of Judas Maccabeus. Nicanor may have been in command of the two
other generals. In this campaign Judas
Maccabeus was gloriously successful.
Nicanor and the invading forces took up positions at Emmaus, but
received such an onslaught at the hands of Judas that the Syrian generals fled
from Judea into Philistia .
It appears that for a time the Syrians were powerless
against Judas. The two apocryphal books
written about the time do not agree. One
has Demetrius making him governor of Judea . The other has Nicanor trying to trick and
capture Judas, resulting in a battle at Capharsalama in which Nicanor sustained
great losses but may have inflicted still more on Judas. In the next battle at Adasa and Beth-horon in
March, 161 B.C., Nicanor received reinforcement, but they did not save his army
or himself. He was slain in the early
stages.
MR-16
NOAH, APOCALYPSE OF.
A writing mentioned by name in
Jubilees, probably written in the middle of the 100s B.C. The fragments show an interest in the legend
of the fallen angels who brought evil into the world when they mated with the
daughters of men; they are held responsible for the Deluge. The fragments also contain a description of
Noah’s birth. The writing is not an
apocalypse in the strict sense of the term.
NUMENIUS (NoumhnioV) Son of Antiochus, and one of Simon the
Hasmonean’s ambassadors to Rome
O
OCINA (Okeina) A coastal place south of Tyre
ODOMERA (odomhra) Chief of a Bedouin clan, struck down by Jonathan the
Maccabee in a raid.
OLYMPIAN ZEUS, TEMPLE temple of Jerusalem
ONIAS (הוניו, gracious
(?); OniaV) 1. Onias
I, high priest in Judea (320-290 B.C.), son of high priest Jaddua and father
of high priest Simon I. Onias I lived
during the time of the Spartan king Arius, with whom he contracted an alliance.
2. Onias II,
Simon I’s son. His rule came only after
that of his uncle Eleazar and the latter’s uncle Manasseh; apparently Onias
was too young. Onias II, refused to pay
the tribute of 20 talents to King Ptolemy III around 242. He made an alliance with Seleucus II; Ptolemy
threatened to seize the country and parcel out the land, but Onias II
persisted. His nephew Joseph of Tobias
handled the situation and thereby assumed leadership of the Jews in the high
priesthood, which lost its political control to the king, retaining only
ecclesiastical power. This was the
beginning of the high-priestly decline and the Tobiade domination in Judea .
3. Onias III,
son of Simon II and high priest in the time of Seleucus IV (180 B.C.). He forsook the Seleucids and became an
adherent of the Ptolemies. His cousins,
the sons of Joseph ben Tobias, who had financial control of the state sided
with the Seleucids. Simon the Tobiade,
captain of the temple, informed King Seleucus that hidden in the temple were
sums of money belonging to Hyrcanus, his half brother. Seleucus sent Heliodorus to confiscate the
money. Upon entering the temple, Heliodorus
was panic-stricken by an apparition of a rider, and he was flogged by youth.
Simon,
the temple captain, accused Onias of instigating the attack on Heliodorus, who
went to Antioch Egypt Heliopolis Antioch Antioch Heliopolis
4. Onias IV, son
of Onias III. He fled to Egypt Memphis
5. Onias, known
as Menelaus, one of the sons of Joseph ben Tobias and cousin of Onias III. He obtained the high priesthood with the help
of Antiochus IV’s army after the deposing of Joshua-Jason. He went to Antioch
MR-17
ORTHOSIA (OrqwsiaV)
A city just north of Tripolis
in Phoenicia
OTHONIAH (OqoniaV) One of the priests with foreign wives. In Ezra 10 the name is Mattaniah.
OX (PERSON) (Wx) Descendant of Israel; father of Merari; grandfather of
Judith.
OZIEL (Ozihl) An ancestor of Judith.
P
PAHATH-MOAB (מואב ﬨפח) An officer or ruler
in Moab Jerusalem
PAMPHYLIA (Pamfulia) A region on the south coast of Asia Minor bounded on the west by Lycia Mediterranean on the south was called the Pamphylian Bay Phrygia and Lycaonia, its chief contacts
with other regions were by water; the chief ports were Attalia and Side.
While Greek colonists settled in
Pamphylia at least as early as the 400s B.C. and Jews lived there in the 100s
B.C., the native element remained dominant.
Of the chief cities, Perga was a stronghold of the native life and religion;
Attalia was more Greek; Side in the 100s B.C. and the next century was wealthy
in large part through acting as the
slave market for the Cilician pirates.
Politically Pamphylia was never important. It was subject to several powers, from
Persians to Romans. The history of
Pamphylia as a Roman province is complicated and not entirely clear. The Romans usually combined it with
neighboring regions.
PAPHOS (PafoV) A city in the southwest part of the island of Cyprus
visited by Paul Barnabas, John Mark on the first missionary journey (There
actually two cities: Paphos Nea, the
one Paul visited; and the old Paphos,
14.4 km to the north). The old city was
the seat of the government of Cyprus Cyprus Arcadia Augusta
PARABLE (משל (maw shal); parabolh (par ah bo leh),
comparison) An extended metaphor, or
simile, frequently a brief narrative, used for teaching purposes; there is
frequently confusion between parables and allegory, in which one ignores its
literal meaning and discovers new hidden meanings in each term. During the biblical period Jesus in
particular used the parable with skill and artistry.
In Hebrew, the word mashal
always involves a comparison. Throughout
the history of Israel
MR-18
Of the apocryphal writers, Sirach continues to use the
parabolic saying in the wisdom tradition.
In Enoch one finds an author, writing under an assumed name, using the
word “parable” in a sense quite different from that of the wisdom writers. The parable is a vision of future things;
observation and deduction have been replaced by revelation. Parables are used to bridge the gap between
the earthly and the heavenly and between the present and the future. Their link with the tradition of wisdom and
of prophecy may lie in the parallel references to parable and riddle in
Proverbs.
PATARA (ta Patara) An ancient city of Lycia Xanthus River Lycia Lycia Egypt Lycia Asia Minor to points further west.
PATROCLUS (PatrokloV) The father
of Nicanor, one of the generals sent to battle Judas Maccabee.
PERDITION (לעילב (beh lee yah al),
injury, destruction; apwleia (ah po lee ah), destruction)
In Old Testament Apocrypha,
“son of perdition” refers to those who perished in the Flood.
PEREA (Peraia, other side) A district east of the Jordan Jordan River and the northeast part of the Dead Sea ; on the east by Gerasa, Philadelphia Pella Amathus Galilee to Judea led through Perea along the Jordan Valley
In earlier times this territory
had been inhabited by the peoples of Gilead , Ammon, and Moab Gilead . John Hyrcanus (135-104 B.C.)
conquered the important city of Medeba Galilee . In 57 Gabinius, the proconsul of Syria Palestine
PERGA (Pergh) One of the leading in ancient Pamphylia a province
on the southern coast of Asia Minor . Perga is
located in the Plain of Pamphylia some 13 km inland from the coast and some 8
km west of the ancient river Cestrus. A
natural rock hill
The period of foundation of Perga is
uncertain. Its name is pre-Greek. Local dedication name Mopsos and Kalchas as
founders of Perga in a clear reference to the colonization by Greeks of the
Late Mycenean Diaspora. The general
history of Perga in the Persian period is unknown. Alexander in 334 B.C. borrowed guides from
Perga and came through the city twice.
In 188 B.C. the city had a Seleucid garrison. The coins of Perga begin at this period and
continue into the 200s A.D.
The most outstanding proof of the
activity in Roman Perga is its buildings and monuments, which survive today as
a site of ruins. The ruins of Perga are
relatively well known. It consists of an
acropolis, a walled lower city, and outlying monuments. The acropolis, about 48 meters high,
dominates the town. No major buildings
have been identified on the citadel.
The lower city was at least of Greek
origin but probably of earlier date. 2
round towers flanked the entrance into an oval court. The Greek city plan presumably was less
regular than the Roman. The streets had
Ionic colonnades, were over 21 meters wide with channels in the center. Some civic buildings have been identified
within the walls—e.g., a palestra and baths.
The theater and the stadium are outside the walled lower city. Perga’s cemeteries are neatly aligned along
the streets leaving the south and west gates.
The most important monument of Perga
MR-19
The great period of Pergamum Thrace Asia Minor .
After Lysimachus had been killed in battle and his rival Seleucus
murdered in Thrace Pergamum
There are three main themes in the
Greek history of Pergamum Asia Minor since 278 B.C.; the friendship
with Rome Pergamum
The glorious days of Pergamum Pergamum Rome
The outcome of this decision was far
from profitable for Pergamum Rome Pergamum Pergamum Roman Empire , Pergamum
The most spectacular planning was
displayed in the upper citadel terrace.
With a vast Greek theater as its center, a radiating array of sacral and
royal buildings spread out on the slope.
The great altar on the upper terrace is the most important artistic
monument preserved at Pergamum Pergamum
PERSECUTION. Suffering inflicted upon an
individual or group for fidelity to a faith.
Persecution may be inflicted by official authority, or by unauthorized
activity of hostile individuals or crowds.
The first attempt to force the
people of God to renounce their own faith is that which was initiated by
Antiochus IV (Epiphanes) of Syria
PERSEUS (PerseuV) Illegimate
son and successor of Philip III in Macedonia Macedonia
MR-20
Three stages of development have
been assumed for the Iranian language group.
The foundation of the Achaemenian Empire raised Old Persian (600
B.C.-300 B.C.) to the rank of the official, imperial language. The
other known representative of Old Iranian is Avesta, which is represented by
“Gathic,” the language of Zarathushtra’s, and “Younger Avestan,” the language
of other Avestan writings.
The existing language diversity
within the Achaemenian Empire became the reason for the introduction and use of
Aramaic as the common language. One of
the immediate results of this practice was the fact that the Aramaic alphabet
initiated the inhabitants of the faraway provinces for the first time to
writing. Many Biblical words come from
Old Iranian. Loan words are also found
in Elamite and Armenian. Besides the
Aramaic documents, the wide spread of the Aramaic language and script is proved
by the discovery of Aramaic documents in Armenia, Georgia, and
Afghanistan. And until the beginning of
the 1900s only one Middle Iranian language was known from the period between
300 B.C. and 700 A.D. Today we know of
five, which include Middle Persian and Parthian.
See
the main entry for discussion of the third stage, New Iranian
(700-present).
The Greek settlements along the
western coast of Asia Minor revolted against Persian rule under the leadership of Aristagoras of
Miletus in 499. Only the Greek argument
is available, while Persian materials are practically non-existent. The history of the Median Wars consisted
mainly of two expeditions, both of which met with failure at places like Marathon , Thermopylae , and Salamis
From the reign of Darius, Greek
scientists and artists were employed at the Persian court. Greek physicians enjoyed the particular
favor of the Archaemenian kings. It
seems likely that they served as intermediaries for the incorporation of
Indian medicine into the body of Hippocratic medicine. There was also a strong relationship between
Iranian and Greek philosophical thought.
The seemingly attractive parallelism in several areas have to be studied
and analyzed separately before a conclusive answer can be proposed. The question of the interdependence of
Iranian religion and postexilic Jewish thought arises. Again, there are interesting parallels, each
of which seems to be a case of general analogy, rather than immediate
borrowing.
Within a few years between Alexander’s
crossing of the Dardanelles and the sack of Persepolis Iran Afghanistan Media , Armenia
The tribe of the Parni, who invaded Parthia Iran Mediterranean and the Far East . Greek, Semitic, and Iranian
cultural influences seemed to met somewhere near the Euphrates .
After Rome Syria Euphrates ultimately ended in failure. In 40 B.C. the Parthians, who invaded the
Roman provinces and occupied Syria Jerusalem
Zoroastrian
(Zarathushtra) Religion—In the Gatha, Zarathushtra’s preachings, an ethical
dualism which leaned toward monotheism is evident. The dualism shows itself in the opposition of
Asa, “Truth,” versus Drug, “Falsehood.” The relation of Ahura-mazda and Spənta Mainyu
is one of father and son. The notion of
monotheism as evidenced by Ahura-mazda and the Aməsa Spənta is coupled with the
dualistic notion of truth versus falsehood.
In the Younger Avesta documents,
there is clearly a considerable admixture of other non-Zarathushtrian
components. The Avestan scriptures
contain several religious strata. In the
400s and 300s B.C., most of the subject matter contrary to the Gatha teachings
was incorporated. The result of
integrating opposite religious concepts leaves a considerable number of
patently incompatible elements. One of
the important facts in the emergence of the Avesta is that the linguistic
structure of the Avestan language points to eastern Iran
MR-21
The problem of the religion of the
Achaemenians is among the most passionately discussed, both by those who
believe that the Achaemenian kings were orthodox Zorastrians; and those who
took the opposite view. Frequent mention
is made of Ahura-mazda. His cult, which
contained part of Zarathrustra’s concept, was possibly introduced in
southwestern Iran
By the time of Artaxerxes I it seems
as if the clergy of Airyana Vaejah may have put the Avestan texts together in
the form of the mixed religion which is now known as “Zoroastrianism,” and that
it by then had become the official religion in southwestern Iran
There is little direct evidence for
the form of Zoroastrianism prevalent in Iran
PHARAKIM. (farakem) Head of a
family of temple servants who returned from the Exile with Zerubbabel.
PHARISEES (farisaioi (פרףשים), separate) An
influential party among the Jews during intertestamental and New Testament
times.
Origin
and Name—For an
understanding of the origins and antecedents of the Pharisees, we must go back
to the pre-exilic institutions of the prophetic guilds and the priesthood. In the New Testament picture of Pharisaism,
the prophetic demands of the law were buried beneath a mass of petty Pharisaic
regulations. But there is a sense in
which the conflict between Pharisees and Sadducees was a revival of the ancient
conflict between prophet and priest in Israel
The law, not the temple, was the
primary factor in postexilic Jewish life; the stage was set for when Torah
could stand in opposition to temple and be taught and applied by a new class of
lay “lawyer,” who owed no allegiance to the temple and were prepared even to
resist its rule and enactments. It is
not known for certain when this revolution took place, but its beginning was probably at the end of
the Persian and the beginning of the Greek period. There may have been lay lawyers in Israel
The religious backbone of the
Maccabean resistance was a “synagogue” of scribes, and the Hasidim, the
“pious,” or loyalists for the law.
Whether these scribes were priestly scribes, lay lawyers, or both,
cannot be known for certain. The
Maccabean family itself was a priestly family.
But the revolt came from the Jewish people, and the priestly caste which
remained in office betrayed the national cause by making terms with the Syrian
conqueror. They were the forerunners of
the Sadducees. Though the temple
services were again restored under Judas Maccabee, the Hasmonean dynasty
represented a new order in Judaism. It became
a monarchy with a governing body of lay Sopherim (scribes) known as the Gerousia or Senate, which was a Greek
institution with laymen as rulers and administrators.
There can be little doubt that the
Pharisaic movement took its rise from among the ranks of these lay lawyers of
the Greek period. It must have been a
body of lay scribes that formed the emerging Pharisaic party. This party must have successfully challenged
the pretensions of the priestly caste.
When the Pharisees first emerge in the historical records, they do so as
an established religious-political party in the Jewish state.
This revolution was a prolonged and
bitter struggle, and it was a revolution which was never completed, for the
struggle for power between the priestly caste (Sadducees) and the lay element
(Pharisees) was to continue for the next two centuries. Tension between temple and a lay-interpreted
Torah is the key to an understanding of much in Jewish life in the two
centuries before Christ.
The derivation of the name Pharisee
is obscure. The common explanation derives the word from the Hebrew parash, meaning “one who is separate,”
either from the priestly interpreters of the law, from the partisans of Judas
Maccabee, or from ritual uncleanness.
Another explanation takes the noun “Pharisee” to mean
“interpreters.” A third type of
explanation is that the Greek name is a Grecized form of the Aramaic word
meaning “Persian.” The explanation more
generally favored is “those who are separated” from impurity.
MR-22
Leading
characteristics—The main characteristic of the Pharisees was their legalism
or legalistic rigorism. The Pharisees
were noted for their strict accuracy in their interpretation of the law and
their scrupulous adherence to it. The
Pharisees were accused by their opponents of building a “fence around the law,”
which excluded non-Pharisaic interpretations and non-Pharisees from the
benefits of Torah.
It was not only their detailed
and elaborate system which characterized Pharisaism as a living and influential
movement in Judaism. What gave this
system of Jewish legalism its force was their scrupulous and strict adherence
to their traditions, so strict that the very name Pharisee became the label for
any self-righteous formalist. The
Pharisees strove to achieve a perfectionism of purity and purification by the
meticulous observance of the rituals of the Levitical code. Pharsaic exclusiveness led a caste-bound
society where contact between members of the exclusive sect and the rest of the
population was regulated by a system designed to minimize uncleanness
contracted in the unavoidable intercourse of daily life. There were other, even more exclusive
sectarians, such as the Essenes and the Qumran sect.
Their second main characteristic was
Pharisaic respect for ancestral tradition.
The Sadducees followed a more literal interpretation of Torah; they had
their own halakoth (laws and ordinances).
The essential difference was that Sadducean law tended to be
conservative. Pharisaic traditional
halakoth retained a flexibility which could adjust to new situations. The result was a large body of tradition which
could always be enlarged. The Pharisaic
scripture went far beyond the 5 books of Moses to include the Prophets and the
Writings. The Pharisees allow their
halakoth of the Torah to be influenced by a wider scriptural authority. It was in the Pharisaic circles that the
Jewish messianic hope was nourished on the ancient prophetic scriptures.
In the period of their greatest
influence, openness to new ideas, including ideas from other religions,
represents one of the main characteristics of historical Pharisaic
thought. One scholar tried to show that
the Sadducees were the conservative group in postexilic Judaism, and that in
opposition to them were the Pharisees, a liberal, forward-looking party,
seeking to reform Judaism in its relation to traditional Jewish orthodoxy. Another scholar tried to prove that Sadducees
and Pharisees represented two divergent attitudes toward destiny of the Jewish
people, and that the Pharisees were essentially non-political.
Actually, both Pharisees and
Sadducees were power groups, each striving for ascendancy in the Jewish state;
political alignments were formed by both groups with the dominant foreign
power. Studies have shown that the
Pharisees were a progressive religious movement originally from the people; the
Sadducees represented the old priesthood and the landed nobility.
Doctrines
and Beliefs—We find the doctrines and beliefs of the Pharisees in Josephus
and in the Pharisaic Psalms of Solomon (60 B.C.), doctrinally one of the most
important of the Pharisaic and anti-Sadducean documents. The Pharisees regarded themselves as the
true and pious Israel Paradise which the Pharisees expected; their expectation was
this-worldly.
Pharisee
Position—On the subject of good, evil, and soul “The Pharisees, . . . the leading sect, attribute everything to Fate
and to God; they hold that to act rightly or otherwise rests for the most part
with men, but that in each action Fate cooperates. Every soul is imperishable, but the soul of
the good alone passes into another body, while the souls of the wicked suffer
eternal punishment.” (Josephus). The
Pharisees believed that history was divinely controlled and governed by a divine
purpose. The Pharisees believed in resurrection
and in a future world where men are rewarded or punished for their behavior. The
Pharisees have a highly developed concept of angels.
Sadducee Position--“The Sadducees do away with Fate altogether, and
remove God beyond the very sight of evil.
Man has the free choice of good or evil.
They do not accept the persistence of the soul after death, penalties in
the underworld, or rewards.” (Josephus).
The Sadducees deny divine control of history, insisting on the
individual’s freedom to direct his own life and history. The Sadducees held fast to the doctrine of
Sheol. The Sadducees reject any concepts
regarding angels.
The Pharisaic doctrine of the
Messiah is best represented in the apocryphal Psalm of Solomon. The Messiah was to overthrow the Gentiles’ supremacy,
to drive them from Jerusalem Israel Israel
MR-23
History
of Pharisaic Thought—It is not until well into the Greek period that we
come upon the first mention of the Pharisees and Sadducees. The Pharisees emerge as an already strongly
established and powerful religious-political party. Josephus says: The Pharisees had passed on to the people
certain regulations handed down by former generations
and not recorded in the Laws of Moses.
They are rejected by the Sadducean group, who hold that only those
regulations should be considered valid which were written down.
Once, Pharisees had been invited
by King John Hyrcanus to a banquet. The
king begged the Pharisees to tell him if there was any way in which he
erred. A certain Eleazar informed
Hyrcanus that he must give up the high priesthood; because he came from a
non-priestly line, he had no right to be high priest. The king withdrew his support from the
Pharisees and went over to the Sadducean side.
It seems probable that it was because Hyrcanus was the first Hasmonean
to assume the royal title that the Pharisees broke with him.
Under Hyrcanus’ successor, Alexander
Janneus, the Pharisaic-Sadducean conflict became even more acute and
bitter. The Pharisee, Simon ben Shatah,
appears to have been a powerful and violent personality. He ousted the Hasmonean king/ high priest
from the leadership of the Gerousia and
assumed the office and duties of its president.
He demanded that Alexander should lay down his office as high priest,
and then summoned him to appear as the king before the Gerousia. It is not
surprising to read that when the tide did turn again, Alexander had 800
Pharisees killed. Later Janneus advised his wife and Simon’s sister to make
peace with the Pharisees. She recalled
Simon and other exiled Pharisees, allowed the Pharisaic party a large share in
the government, and reintroduced Pharisaic laws and decrees. Simon executed 80 “witches” on a single day,
thus creating a precedent for mass murders of Pharisees by Sadducees and
Sadducees by Pharisees.
Now securely in power, the Pharisaic
party proceeded once again to take a terrible revenge on their Sadducean
opponents. The latter sought out the
support of Aristobulus, and managed to get control of a number of strategic
fortresses. There they were joined by
Aristobulus, who only awaited his mother’s death. This internal struggle between the two
parties, had momentous consequences for the Jewish people, for both sides
appealed to Rome
The story of the fortunes of the
Pharisaic party in Hasmonean times is a tale mainly of political intrigue,
wholesale murder of Sadducees and Pharisees, and traitorous bargaining with
powerful outsiders. It was undoubtedly
this cleavage between Pharisees and Sadducees which led to the downfall of
Hasmonean Judaism. Despite this failure,
Pharisaic thought reached its peak during this period.
The second stage in the history of
Pharisaic thought, the Roman period, is a period of declining influence. As the nation lost its independence, the
differences between Pharisees and Sadducees tended to become less political and
more religious. During the ethnarchy,
the Sadducees sought to call Herod to account for his con-duct in Galilee .
When Herod captured Jerusalem
(See also the entry in the main section.)
PHASELIS (fashliV) A city of Asia Minor Lycia
PHASIRON (fasirwn)
Ancestor of some who were struck down by Jonathan near Bethbasi.
MR-24
PHILIP (FillipoV)
See also entry in the main section.
1. Philip
II of Macedonia Macedonia Sparta Asia Minor . Two years later, Alexander
began the campaign which overthrew the Persian Empire and extended the power of the Greeks to the “ends of
the earth.”
2. Philip V,
king of Macedonia Thessaly , they forced him to accept humiliating terms of
peace. Macedonia
3. A Phrygian,
appointed governor of Jerusalem Judea by Antiochus Epiphanes; he was seen as being “more
barbarous in character” than Antiochus.
He was active during the period when Antiochus proscribed Judaism and
attempted to force the Greek culture on the Jewish people.
4. The foster brother
and trusted courtier of Antiochus Epiphanes.
Both he and Lysias sought control of the Seleucid following Antiochus’
death. Philip was appointed to serve as
regent during the minority of Antiochus V.
Lysias seized the regency and either executed Philip or forced him to
withdraw to Egypt Jerusalem Antioch Antioch
The site was occupied originally by settlers who came from the offshore
island of Thasos Athens Macedonia Philippi ; he
probably built the wall around the city, and constructed the Greek theater.
In
167 B.C., when Macedonia Philippi fell in the first district. In
42 B.C., Antony Antony Antony Philippi .
The
forum of the city lay directly beside the Via Egnatia and was a rectangular
area the size of a football field. At
the northeast and northwest corners of the forum rose the symmetrical facades
of two large temples. The symmetrical
arrangement of the forum suggests that its major building were planned and
erected at the same time. It is judged
that this construction work was not earlier than his successor, Marcus
Aurelius. It is probable that the forum
was built on the place and to some extent after the plan of the more ancient
forum; the theater was rebuilt in Roman style.
PHILO,
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES OF. The title of a book by an unknown author which was
found in a Latin medieval manuscript.
The author is no generally referred to as Pseudo-Philo. His work contains an abstract of the biblical
story from Adam to the death of Saul.
Occasionally the author furnished quite novel additions to the biblical
story. The period of the judges is
covered more thoroughly than other parts.
The author of the Biblical Antiquities evidently made use of folklore
concerning Israel
MR-25
The book is important, because its
production falls approximately in the same period as that of the Synoptic
Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke). There
are close parallels in thought, expression, and image with various parts of the
New Testament. It is widely assumed that
Pseudo-Philo wrote sometime after 70 A.D.
If the author lived after the destruction of the Second Temple Israel Israel Israel
The belief in resurrection is affirmed,
and a thorough explanation of angels is given, including the names of many
angels not known from any other source.
There appears to be no “messiah” like the one described in the New
Testament. The term appears, but only in
a strictly historical context.
Pseudo-Philo’s work possibly covered a wider period than what we have in
the present form. In many respects the
book may serve as a corrective of misconceptions about Judaism. The only version of the book we have now is
in Latin. The Latin translation was made
from the Greek, and this in turn was made from Hebrew.
PHILO JUDEUS. A Jew of Alexandria contemporary
with Jesus. In the history of Judaism,
more of his writings survived to the present day than those of any other Jew of
his time from outside Palestine
Little is known of Philo’s life
except a great pogrom that took place in Alexandria Rome
To have had such a responsible
mission Philo must have been one of the leading Jews of the city. Many believe that Philo spent a considerable
part of his life in public administration.
He certainly had a thorough Alexandrian education and wrote a florid but
fluent Greek. At the same time he felt
deeply loyal to Judaism. While he often
agreed with rabbinic tradition, he does not show signs of being as well
acquainted with it as he does with Greek thought. His Bible was the most widely used Greek Old
Testament, the Septuagint; for him it was as much the Word of God as the
original Hebrew.
This article divides Philo’s writing
into four groups. The first group of
writings is made up of explanatory works addressed to Gentiles (e.g Apology for the Jews; On the Contemplative
Life; Life of Moses). The Contemplative
Life, which may have been of the larger Apology,
describes the customs of the Essenes in Palestine. In his Life
of Moses, Philo says that Moses was the ideal king, priest, prophet, and
lawgiver. In such a presentation Gentile
and Jewish conceptions obviously blend.
The highest law of the Jews appears to be not the injunctions written by
Moses, but an unwritten law behind the Torah, one basically revealed in the very
person of the hero-king. The biblical
presentation of Moses as leading the people out of Egypt
A second division of Philo’s work,
the Exposition of the Law contains
several treatises on biblical subjects (e.g. Creation, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob,
Joseph, Decalogue, etc.). This series
again seems addressed to Gentiles, or to Jews so immersed in Greek culture as
to be barely distinguishable from Greeks.
Its purpose is an alignment of Jewish biblical tradition with Greek
thought.
The Logos was not
only the creative agent, but it abides in the world as the law of nature. God made it even more startlingly available
in heroes like Enos, Enoch, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, who knew and lived
by the law before it had been revealed on Sinai or codified by Moses. He introduces the term “mystagogues,” that
is men who make manifest the law in their lives, and who can lead others to an
immediate comprehension of God’s law.
The Decalogue begins by saying
that God also revealed his law to the Jews in verbal form. In 4 books on the Special Laws, Philo goes
on to discuss the legislation under these ten heads.
A third group of
Philo’s writings is usually called the Allegory
of the Jewish Law. We have parts of
18 of the 27 treatises known to be in this series. In them it is assumed that the basic point of
view of the Exposition, mentioned
earlier, was familiar; they begin with Genesis in its 2nd chapter
and stop suddenly with the dreams of Jacob, Joseph, the baker, the butler, and
the pharaoh of Egypt
Still another series of treatises by
Philo is the Questions and Answers in
Genesis and Exodus. We have only a
few scattered fragments of it in Greek, and large sections in Armenian. The Questions
show how Philo never forgot or abandoned the literal type of Judaism, though he
felt that the heights of Judaism rose far beyond that level. He would have nothing to with those, like
Paul, whom the mystic meaning—the spirit of the law—had led to abandon the
literal. The Questions is a monument to Philo’s refusal to choose between these
two. Several miscellaneous treatises are
preserved as well.
MR-26
One approach to Philo is to fit his
writings into preconceived categories of Judaism or philosophy. This puts Philo as the first writer of the
medieval tradition in which the problem was to reconcile reason with the
teachings of the Bible. But seeking
consistency in Philo’s thinking seems inappropriate to Philo’s own frequent
indifference to consistency.
In beginning with his writings, this
article is trying to understand the central interest or thesis of his
writings. A treatise on his philosophy
could well be written; in it, a rather eclectic and superficial thinker would
emerge. His worldview follows Plato and
Aristotle, but in discussing “Providence
In Philo we have a man educated in
the philosophic schools to some extent, but one who found his chief
satisfaction in Neoplatonism’s mystical possibilities, where the Good of Plato
became the Being, the One, and the center of all existence. For Philo, Being would be linked to the world
of experience still in terms of abstraction.
Philo described the link as a stream or radiation from the One; Philo
called this stream by various names, most commonly Logos. When Philo the man of
religion spoke, he described the stream as manifesting itself in the attributes
of grace, justice, and mercy. The Logos gave to the world its form, and to
men their image of God, their minds; and it led one back to God. Philo proudly told the stories of his own
God’s relations with patriarchs and the people, and boasted that what the
pagans were looking for, the Jew already had.
Philo had many names for the Stream
of Being from God. The stream first
manifested itself in the order of the universe.
Philo said that this order of nature should be a sufficient revelation of
divinity, but since it was not, Logos represented
itself in the great patriarchs. The
manifestation of Logos in coded law
was inferior to the revelation in persons.
Although Philo would not have agreed, Paul carried Philo’s way of
thinking to its natural conclusion in applying it to Christ. The heart of Philo’s message is exactly
expressed in a verse from Romans 4: “The promise [of inheritance] to Abraham
and his descendants . . . did not come through the law but through the
righteousness of faith.”
Philo made frequent statements that
the true Judaism is the true mystery religion.
If Philo meant what he said, then we may conclude that he found in
Judaism an authority for taking to himself not the rites of pagan mysteries,
but the values they sought. To him the
Jewish Bible revealed the path from the matter to the immaterial, the path
people of his time were everywhere seeking in mystic rite and philosophy.
The early Christian interpreters
found Philo’s exposition of the Bible so congenial that they used his works as
a basis for much of their interpreting.
It does not appear that Philo was quoted by any writer of the New
Testament; similarly there is no evidence that Philo was widely read by the
Jews of the Dispersion. But Philo
clearly speaks for a Group of Jews whose thinking took much the line of
Christianity after it had been influenced by Greek culture, and also later
Jewish mysticism.
PHILOMETOR. (filomhtwr) The
Ptolemy whose enthronement is mentioned in II Maccabees.
PHYLARCH (fularchV) Term used for a chief officer of a cavalry regiment or
military contingent, specifically an officer in the army of Timothy, who was
slain by Judas.
POSIDONIUS (PosidwnioV)
One of the three men sent by Nicanor with authority to propose and
accept a truce from Judas Maccabee.
PRAYER (תפלה (tef il law), intercession; proseuch (pros yoo kay))
In the Bible prayer moves from the level of magic to the heights of
spiritual communion and identification of will and activity with God.
Prayer is attempted intercourse with God, with or without mediation of
priests or heavenly beings; it is usually, but not necessarily, vocal. It is designed to affect the nature and
course of the relationship through personal contact. It means and ends always depend upon how the
nature of God is conceived. Prayer can
cover petition, entreaty, expostulation, confession, thanksgiving,
recollection, praise, adoration, meditation, and intercession. This article will deal primarily with
petition, intercession, and meditation, and with such other features only as
are related to these.
MR-27
Tobit and his associates are typical of the attitude towards prayer
during the Greek period. Their prayers
are dominated by the act of blessing.
The prayers of Judith are rationalistic.
The Wisdom of Solomon passes back and forth from discourse to prayer and
constitutes a rehearsal of God’s wisdom in dealing with his people. The Song of the Three Children rehearses
God’s just treatment and turns into a catalogue of praise familiar to
liturgical worship.
The exact origin of the Synagogue is unknown, but its relation to the
temple service is probably to be traced to the institution known as Ma’amad, an association of Israelites
attached to each of the 24 weekly courses of priests on duty. Some attended the sacrifices; the rest
gathered in their own villages at the hour of the temple rites and offered
appropriate prayers. After 70 A.D. the
rabbis came to hold that prayer was better than sacrifice.
The predominant note of the synagogue services in biblical times was
thanksgiving. The basic elements in the
service were: the Shema (Hear O Israel, . . .”); the reading of Torah; the
doxologies of the Kaddish; and the Tephillah or Amidah, the standing prayers,
which are three praises and three thanksgivings, and between them a
benediction-prayer for the Sabbath or festival, which over time became the
Shemoneh Esreh or “Eighteen Benedictions”; on weekdays petition was
included. The first of the Eighteen are
personal, asking knowledge, repentance, forgiveness, redemption, healing, and
the produce of the earth. Every petition
is, however, an act of praise and ends with a blessing of God.
The sectarians have left no description of their regular services, but
the synagogue combination of praise and edification is characteristic of the
Covenanters (Dead Sea Scrolls). Worship
was thought to involve the whole person and his possessions, and the prayer
took the place of sacrifice as in the synagogue. The spirit and aim of their prayers is
largely documented in the collection of Hodayoth
or Psalms of Thanksgiving, where the note of praise is unmistakable, as is a
singular sense of wonder that humans can be redeemed and share in the high
calling of God.
Ben Sirach approaches near to the attitudes of the New Testament. He
affirms that people may humble themselves before God. Forgiveness in prayer depends upon a
forgiving spirit. The prayers include
petitions for protection from sin and temptation, and a thanksgiving, which are
reminiscent of the Kaddish in the synagogue service.
PRIESTS (כהן (ko hen), from the verb “to stand” (i.e. before the Lord) The
priesthood in biblical thought represents Israel Judea enjoyed a short-lived
independence under the rule of the Hasmoneans.
PROSELYTE (גר (geer), sojourner; proshlutoV
(pro seh lih tos)) The
original meaning of the Hebrew ger designated
a person associated with a community not his own, one who, through some
misfortune, has had to leave his home and take refuge with a foreign
people. In the Mishna, ger designates a convert of Judaism.
Maccabean and
Hasmonean Periods—In Palestine Galilee was
long known as the “Circle of the nations,” and its people were held in contempt
as a mongrel lot. The policy of forced
conversion was motivated more by political considerations than by religious or
missionary zeal. The rabbis never
approved of forced conversion, and in Pharisaic law even a slave could not be
forcibly converted. The success of
Jewish proselytism in the Greek period is attested by many sources.
The upsurge of nationalist zeal under
the Hasmonean rulers did not check the development of the ideal of
universalism. The political ambition of
the Hasmoneans did not have the full support of the devoutly religious Jews;
their concern was loyalty to God. The
petty triumphs of the Hasmonean princes did not change the fact that Jews in
the Gentile world had to make their way and win friends and adherents by
peaceful means. The family and
descendents of Herod insisted on conversion for those with whom they
inter-married; some potential allies refused to convert. This insistence on conversion was a tradition
of the dynasty probably based more on political consideration than on religious
fervor.
As early as the 100s B.C., there
were Jewish residents in Rome Rome Italy
Jewish
Propaganda, Explanations, and Anti-Jewish Reaction—The dispersion of Jews
throughout the Mediterranean world put them in the position of a defensive
minority. They kept the sabbath,
observed the festivals and observed the dietary laws. They preserved a strong attachment to Jerusalem
Wide circles of
pagan society were fascinated by Jewish rites and customs, but the greatest
appeal was made by Jewish morals based on ethical monotheism. Many a questing Greek could find inner peace
in Judaism’s doctrine of one omnipotent God, who cannot be represented by any
image, who demands a life of virtue and rewards and punishes beyond this
life. No other religion had such exalted
doctrine. The theology and the ethics of
Judaism stimulated the Greek interest in ideas.
Under the influence of Greek tolerance, Jews emphasized the
universalistic aspects and minimized such features of their law and customs as
seemed difficult or absurd to the Greek mind.
The Diaspora Jew was
keenly aware of his religious superiority.
He fancied himself a light to those who are in darkness. An extensive and vigorous propaganda for
Judaism was developed in the cities where there were large Jewish
minorities. The translation of the
Hebrew scriptures into Greek became also a vehicle for spreading knowledge of Judaism
among the Gentiles.
Zealous Jews created
a whole literature in Greek. They
reworked biblical materials for propaganda purposes. Most important is the so-called Sibyline
Oracles, which in its present form has been reworked by Christians, but which
contains original Jewish sections in which idolatry is denounced and monotheism
advocated. The Wisdom of Solomon is an
unexcelled document of religious propaganda, a compound of Judaism and Greek
philosophy. Aristobulus the Jewish
philosopher wrote with the aim of reconciling Greek philosophy and Jewish
religion. A great part of the writings
of Philo of Alexandria are expressly intended to recommend Judaism to the
Greeks. Philo tried to show that
everything good in Greek philosophy had already been better taught by Moses.
It is highly probable
that there were manuals for the instruction of converts is highly
probable. We may have such a manual in
parts of the Didache, or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles. Those parts are called the “Two Ways
The Jews were not
accepted everywhere. Already in the 400s
B.C., the colony at Elephantine had its temple destroyed. The
attempt to resist assimilation by self-isolation aroused suspicion and
animosity. The Roman philosophers
complained that “they show the way only to their fellow believers, and only the
circumcised do they lead to the desired fountain.” Deliberate defamation of the Jews, begun by
the Egyptian priest Manetho in the 200s B.C., was carried on by the Romans.
Against such attacks
the Jews wrote formal apologies (explanations).
The Greek poets and philosophers were quoted to show that they too share
something of the exalted concept of God with the Jews. Despite the efforts of apologists and
propagandists anti-Jewish sentiments sometimes erupted into violence. In 38 A.D. there was a government-sponsored
persecution of Jews in Alexandria
The vigor and
success of Jewish missionary efforts is attested in many sources. Romans poets and historians refer, usually
with hostility, to Jews, their sympathizers, and adherents being
everywhere. Before the rise of
Christianity, Judaism had won numerous sympathizers, adherents, and even full
converts in all parts of the Roman world. Agrippa I says that Jews have settled wherever
there is any advantage of soil or climate.
Josephus claimed that there was no city where the sabbath rest and other
Jewish usages were not widely observed and Jewish virtues emulated.
Philo and Josephus on Proselytes—Philo Judeus was a thorough blend
of both Jew and Greek. To him
non-Greek-speaking Jews were “the barbarians.”
Plato to him was almost on the same level with Moses. Still, his loyalty and zeal for Judaism were
all-consuming. Philo’s purpose, however,
was not only to edify his fellow Jews, but also to win friends and adherents
among the Gentiles. Since Israel
MR-29
Conversions to Judaism were
apparently not infrequent in Alexandria
Apart from full membership in the
Mosaic organization, Philo gave recognition to intermediate classes who are
neither born Jews nor full converts.
Philo uses the Athenian term metoikos,
which designates the half heathen, who were allowed to live with limited rights
among the Jews in Palestine
Philo used the term epelutes to designate the convert. The rabbis distinguished the full convert (gar tsadad, “righteous foreigner”) and
the partial adherent (gar tosheb,
“foreign stranger”), whose ritualistic behavior was uncontrolled, and who had
no formal relation to the congregation.
The true convert assumed full ritual duties, including circumcision, and
was received into full membership and his descendants became fully qualified
Jews in the third generation. The pagan
who has rejected polytheism but remains uncircumcised is a proselyte in the
same sense as were the Israelites in Egypt
Josephus also does not use the term proselutos, but he variously describes
converts as those who change their course of life and embrace the Jewish
customs. Similar terms are used of the
forced conversion of the Idumeans.
Judaism to Josephus was thus not merely a matter of race, but admitted
all who had a mind to observe the Mosaic laws and live as Jews.
PSALMS, BOOK OF
(תהלים (teh hee
leem), praise, glory) The first book of
the third group of books, the Writings,” in the Masoretic Text. It is believed to the most important book
among the Writings.
Probably the first
Christian congregations sang hymns from the Psalter in their public services,
most likely in Greek. This practice
follows the example given by the services in the Jerusalem
The fixing of the age of these smaller collections depends on their
interpretation, especially of the songs mentioning the king. The fact that the Greek Old Testament (OT) has
the same order and number of psalms shows that the actual collection was
finished between the division of the early OT into five books (i.e. before the
Samaritan schism in the 300s) and the Greek translation, namely no later than
200 B.C. The dating of the collection of
course has no effect on having a much earlier dating of its smaller units.
In the Thanksgiving Psalm from Qumran ,
thanks are given to God who helped in the days of distress, who forgave and
sent his word of grace. While the poet
is a true worshiper of Yahweh, his enemies are God’s foes. One scholar tried to demonstrate that they
were sorcerers; another said they are political adversaries of the king. The thanksgiving psalms of the individual
were originally not sung by the common members of the congregation but by its
representative. The evildoers against
the king may have been men of a magic power who preferred to kill him secretly
and unseen. In contrast, the
thanksgiving was a public ceremony. It
was accompanied by sacrifices and other cultic actions such as the elevation of
the cup of salvation, and by a big meal to the poor of the congregation were
invited.
The main thing in these songs is the proclamation of the name of the God
who helped. Yahweh alone is to be
recognized as saving lord over life and death.
The speaker remembers the dreadful situation from which the speaker was
saved. Yahweh is the god of life, saving
from death because God is never dying.
In the Qumran beliefs, God has proved
that God is the “prince of the angels the king of all that are in glory, the Lord
of every spirit and the Ruler of every deed.”
MR-30
PSALMS OF SOLOMON.
A
collection of 18 extra-biblical psalms which have survived in Greek and
Syriac. The title may have been chosen
to distinguish these poems from the canonical Psalms, which are for the most,
traditionally ascribed to David. Against
an earlier view that the psalms were composed in Egypt Judea , and translated into Greek
before 70 A.D. The Hebrew original is
lost. Though apparently from several
authors, the psalms are fairly uniform in style.
Modeled on the canonical Psalter,
the psalms largely follow conventional themes: mournful and hopeful; hymn-like;
condemning injustice; imploring God’s deliverance; threatening punishment for
sinners; and promising reward for the righteous. They were composed at a time when Israel Israel
Indignant at the arrogance of the
conqueror who profaned the temple, the psalmist is harsher on his own
compatriots than on the Gentile invader.
In the Psalms of Solomon the conquest of the Holy City
A decisive
difference between the Dead Sea Scroll and the Psalms of Solomon lies in the
fact that the psalmist expects deliverance through the medium of a
king-messiah, whereas in the Scrolls deliverance is assigned to a priest-messiah. The Scrolls occasionally comes close to
predetermination, while the Psalms expound on humankind’s freedom of choice
between good and evil. A community is
envisaged that also finds fulfillment “in this world,” and yet there is an
emphasis on a sanctified life directed exclusively toward God and devoted
entirely to God’s service.
When God visits the earth, a redemption
day will dawn for the just, who shall rise to eternal life and joy; the wicked
will be destroyed unless they confess their sins. Some passages suggest that sinners will have
no part in the world to come. Israel Israel
Against this, we
have the statement that in the messianic age foreigners will not be allowed to
live in the Holy Land . This statement stems from the fact
that Palestine Israel
The psalmist prays
for the coming of messiah who will be David’s descendant. Jewish belief in the end of this age is both
older and wider than Jewish beliefs in a messiah. When the Jews no longer had any
representative ruler of their own, the concrete term “messiah,” came to signify
the embodiment of political-religious hopes.
The Messiah in the Psalms of Solomon is thus the symbol of ideal
kingship. Established by God, the
Messiah is no supernatural being, but is a person in all human dignity and
perfection. The Messiah will eject
sinful Jews from their inheritance; he will make Jerusalem
The Psalms of
Solomon are an important source of information concerning Jewish beliefs in New
Testament times. They illustrate
developments and tensions within Jewish thought which illuminate the
background of the gospel story. There
are many expressions in the Psalms of Solomon that have their parallels in the New
Testament (e.g. the image of the people as lambs; and “first-born” and “only
begotten son.”) The attributes of Israel
as a whole came to be transferred to one person, the one in whom all that
Israel is and stands for will find valid realization, the one true
representative of the nation—the Messiah.
PTOLEMAIS. A city in northern Palestine,
identical with Acco, a harbor and
city-state in Northern Palestine, north of Mount Carmel on a small coastal
plain roughly 6.5 km wide.
PTOLEMY. The
title peculiar to a dynasty of Hellenistic kings ruling in Egypt 323 B.C.-30
B.C.
1. Ptolemy,
called Soter (Savior). Founder Ptolemaic
dynasty; son of Lagos Egypt Phoenicia Palestine Judea
to Egypt Asia , approached.
Under his rule many Jews came to Alexandria
MR-31
In 312
Ptolemy, defeating Demetrius, again occupied the land but had to evacuate Palestine Palestine Syria Palestine Jericho Palestine
2. Ptolemy II,
Philadelphus (ruled 283-247). In his
regime the material and literary splendor of the Alexandrian court was
enhanced. He was successful in
establishing the rule of the Ptolemies over Phoenicia Judea for a long period.
He refounded the city of Philadelphia
Under his rule the first five books of
the Old Testament was translated into Greek; this version is known as the
Septuagint. The translation may have
been called forth by the literary interests of Ptolemy Philadelphus and also by
the needs of the Jews to preserve their Torah into their spoken language in Egypt
3. Ptolemy III,
Euergetes (245-221), struggled with the Seleucid kingdom. He invaded Palestine Judea . It was at this time that Onias II, the high
priest of Judea , refused to pay the tribute to Ptolemy. Greek inscriptions from the time of Ptolemy
III show evidence of the existence of synagogues.
4. Ptolemy IV, Philopator (221-203). Although his name means “father-loving,” he
murdered his father, Ptolemy III. The Ptolemaic
kingdom’s decline began in his reign. In
220 Antiochus III of Syria Palestine Egypt
5. Ptolemy V,
Ephihanes (203-181). In 199 Antiochus
III invaded Palestine Judea
reverted to Syria Judea
was influenced by these internal conflicts in foreign policy.
6. Ptolemy VI,
Philometor (180-146). As an ambitious
ruler, he donned two crowns—that of Egypt Asia . He was able to interfere in Syrian affairs,
supporting Alexander Balas against Demetrius.
In 150 Ptolemy VI married his daughter Cleopatra to Alexander
Balas. Later Ptolemy took Cleopatra back
and gave her to Demetrius II (There are conflicting reports from existing
records on the above reported events.)
Ptolemy and his consort
committed the care of the entire kingdom to the hands of the Jews. Two Jewish generals, Onias, Dositheus, had
command of the whole army. He released
Onias IV (164-162) in Heliopolis Jerusalem Temple of Onias
7. Ptolemy VII,
Euregetes II, called Physcon because of his appearance; younger brother of
Ptolemy VI; he shared the throne with Ptolemy VI from 170-164, and reigned
alone from 145 to 117. Ptolemy VII set
up Alexander Zabinus against Demetrius II and was successful for a number of
years. He showed great hostility to the
Jews. After the death of Ptolemy VI,
Ptolemy VII tried to supplant Cleopatra.
He had the Alexandrian Jews put in arenas. But Jews were miraculously saved. A changed occurred after Ptolemy married his
chief enemy, Cleopatra. He began to show
favor to the Jews, granting them many rights in Alexandria
8. Ptolemy VIII,
Lathyrus, coregent with Cleopatra (116-107).
He supplied Egyptian troops to aid Antiochus Cyzacenis to attack the
Jews. But they were unsuccessful, and Samaria Egypt Cyprus Judea , her Jews general Ananios induced her not to do so
but rather to make a treaty with Alexander Janneus.
9. Ptolemy XIII,
Auletes. He was driven out by popular
revolt in 56 B.C. Gabinius was
instructed by Pompey to help reinstate him.
Gabinius was successfully aided by the Jews. In the fourth year of his reign the Greek
text of the book of Esther was introduced (78 B.C.) into Egypt
10. Ptolemy Mennaeus, king of Chalchis on Lebanon
11. Son of Antony Syria
MR-32
12. Son of Abubus; son-in-law of Simon the Hasmonean;
military commander of Jerusalem
13. Macron, son of Dorymenes; governor of Cyprus
14. Son of Dositheus; a priest and Levite who brought the
Letter of Purim—Hasmonean propaganda—into Alexandria
15. There were
several Ptolemies in Herod’s time who are recognized as Greek counselors.
PURPLE (ארגמן (ar gaw mawn); porfura (por
foo ra)) The most valued of
ancient dyes, encompassing various shades within the red-purple range. It was obtained from Mediterranean
mollusks. Judas Maccabee was amazed that
the powerful Romans did not wear purple.
When Alexander appointed Jonathan high priest, he gave him a purple
robe.
PUTEOLI (oi Potioloi) A city on the Bay of Naples Rome
Puteoli was founded by
colonists from the Greek island of Samos Italy Rome
Q
a.) This Old Testament city was abandoned at the
end of the 500s and used
again under the Hasmonean and high priest John
Hyrcanus
(134-104 B.C.).
b.) During the
hundred years before Christ the site was rebuilt and enlarged
by the religious
sect. In the winter an impressive water
system conducted
the water from a waterfall in the west by a stone aqueduct into channels
and
large cisterns, some of which had large steps used in purification.
rites. There are also remains of
workshops for the craftsmen: Pottery,
forge, grain mill, bakery, laundry,
scriptorium and possibly a library for
scribes.
The monastery as fortified by walls and a strong
tower in the
northwest. They were holy
men and holy warriors, industrious workers
and
writers.
c.) The monastery was considerably destroyed by
an earthquake, no doubt in 31
B.C. The
place must have been abandoned until 4 B.C.
The pottery of
the monastery is of the same type as that in which the Dead Sea Scrolls were
found. Four of the five scrolls found in
1948 were published in 1950 and 1951.
They included: a complete book of the prophet Isaiah; a
commentary on the first chapters of Habakkuk; and a Manual of Discipline. The last of the five scrolls could not be
opened at that time. It later turned out
to be a commentary on some Genesis chapters.
In 1954, other scrolls were published which included: an Isaiah
scroll; the war of the Children of Light and the Children of Darkness and a
collection of thanksgiving psalms.
MR-33
Cave
II, situated a short distance south of Cave I, contained a portion of the book
of Jubilees and an Aramaic document describing the New Jerusalem. Cave III, about 1.6 km north of Cave I,
contained fragments in Aramaic and Hebrew, and two copper scrolls. Cave IV, located just opposite and west of Khirbet Qumran , was discovered by the Bedouins in September,
1952. It offered by far the greatest
wealth of fragments: all biblical books except Esther; many apocryphal
writings; commentaries; liturgical texts; and other writings of the Qumran
site of the Essene sect.
Documents
Discovered—The fragments include
parts of Ecclesiasticus, Tobit, Jubilees, Enoch, the Testament of Levi, and the
Rule of the New Covenant, as well as fragments of apocryphal writings which are
unknown to us. Some of the Apocrypha,
which until now could not be related to a distinct religious group, must be
attributed to the Essenes of Qumran.
Also, there must have existed a lot of other apocryphal writings about
Noah, the patriarchs, and Moses. The
sect also produced commentaries on books or passages of the Bible, which
included prophets like Isaiah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah.
The
writings which represent the life of the sect include: the rules in the Manual of Discipline and
the war scroll; the hymns; liturgical writings; and wisdom writings. Also peculiar to this sect is the Pesher or
commentary. The Habakkuk Pesher throws
light on the history of the Essenes. The important events and problems related
to Habakkuk's prophecies can be summarized as: the controversy between
the "Right-Teacher" and the "Wicked Priest;" God's judgment
upon the people; God's judgment upon the nations.
Sect
Documents: Pesher and Manual of Discipline—The Right-Teacher, a priest, brings a prophetic message from God,
through his understanding of the prophecy of Habakkuk, which is even better
than the prophet's. He has found men who
believed him and with them established a community. However, his message and claims are rejected
by the Wicked Priest, who was most likely the high priest at Jerusalem
Who
are these Kittim? In the Old Testament
the name is used for the people of Cyprus Jerusalem Jerusalem
The
Manual of Discipline scroll prescribes: the rules and the liturgy of the
covenant; the doctrine of the community; admission to the community; penal
code; and the holy life in the world of evil.
Those who enter the sect have to bind themselves by an oath to the Torah
as it is interpreted by the chief authorities of the sect. Only the sect's interpretation of the Law
is true, which made it impossible to share a common life with the Jews. So, they had to separate themselves into the
wilderness. The brotherhood's life was a
holy one; its holiness was expressed by: obedient fulfillment of the laws
of the brotherhood; holy ceremonies such as ritual baths and the common meals;
economic purity; and chastity.
Everyone
who entered the sect was considered unclean in regard to his knowledge,
strength, and property; for two or three years one was a novitiate. After a first examination by the overseer and
a period of instruction, the novitiate was admitted to the covenant. After a year’s probation, he was examined by
the general assembly and allowed to participate in the "purification of
the Many," which foreshadowed the great and final cleansing of the elect
by God. Ritual purity was completed by
economic purity; the proselyte’s property was taken over and his work devoted
to the sect. This is similar to the priestly tribe of Levi having no share in
the promised land. After a third year of
perfect life the novitiate was admitted to the most sacred rite, the
"drink." From then on, he took
his seat in the sect’s sessions and voted on all affairs of the community.
Within his order every man received an annual rank according to his knowledge
and practice of the Torah.
The
life of the sect is marked by the prayers, held every day in the morning and in
the evening. The zeal for a holy and
separate life was reinforced by expectations of a new age and a black-or-white,
good-or-evil, view of the world. The
world is dominated by two spirits, the spirit of light and the spirit of
darkness. By predestination of God each
man belongs to one of these dominions.
Since the Children of Light too will be tempted by sin and plagues until
that date, the theory of predestination does not exclude an appeal for moral
struggle. The assemblies, described in
the second part of the rule, point to the messianic age. Every meal of the sect gave a foretaste of
the messianic banquet. There is also a
collection of blessings; these blessings were probably written to illustrate
the reward of the new age as an encouragement to the wise man.
MR-34
Sect Documents: War Scroll, Hodayoth, and apocryphal writings—The
War Scroll gives the plan for the final war between the Children of Light and
the Children of Darkness. The scroll
gives the rules for equipment and tactics, and then exhortations and prayers
for the different stages of the war, pointing to God promises. The war, which lasts 40 years, is directed
against all the nations of the biblical world.
The Children of Light, represented by the tribes of Levi ,
Judah
The
thanksgiving hymns are in no clear order or progress of thought. The first hymn describes the overwhelming
power of the almighty God and in contrast the weakness and impurity of
man. This is also the general theme of
these hymns. All these dramatic scenes
refer to the controversy of the pious members of the sect with their Jewish
opponents. The speaker seems to be
persecuted, driven out from his country, and afflicted by troubles unloosed by
former followers. The speaker must be a
teacher of the sect. He is not only the
representative of God but also of his community. The members of the community are his
spiritual children, whom he brings to the light; the teacher becomes a father
of the faithful ones. While the speaker
is weak and sinful in his physical nature, he appears as a strong fortress when
he is endowed with the holy spirit.
Other
apocryphal writings include the Genesis Apocryphon, which was severely damaged
over the centuries before it was opened.
It represents a type of free and speculative exegesis of a biblical
text, using the voice of the patriarchs to paraphrase the biblical text and explain
the motives of their actions through new legendary stories. The righteous of the remote past become great
examples for the righteous of the last generation before the new age. Thus, the angelic beauty and splendor of the
young Noah is an image of the glory of the reborn righteous in the messianic
age. For the women of the sect the ideal
is Sarah, whose beauty is highly praised by Pharoah's courtiers. All these apocalyptic stories are written to
encourage the afflicted pious ones, that they might remain faithful while
awaiting the messianic age.
This
age brings the fulfillment of history.
God carries on the work of salvation, but God uses chosen instruments:
the prophet who prepares the way as a second Moses and Elijah; the Messiah from
Aaron or Right-Teacher; and the Messiah of Israel, the victorious fighter. The function of the prophet and forerunner
was probably fulfilled by the Right-Teacher.
When the Messiah of Israel has defeated God's enemies on earth, the
Messiah of Aaron will establish his holy community; the figure of the Son of
man was not used.
Conclusions—The history of the sect has it religious origin in the
Hasidim, the pious, an orthodox group which successfully opposed the
Hellenizing tendencies in Judaism. In
the second half of the 100s B.C. the coalition between the Maccabean-Hasmonean
rulers and the pious ones broke up, and the latter split off into different
groups. Tensions between these groups
led to a revolt of the pious ones against King Alexander Janneus (103-76
B.C.). The exodus of the Essenes from Jerusalem Damascus Qumran . There they could survive Jerusalem’s
conquest by Pompey in 63 B.C. Herod the
Great is reported to have held the Essenes in high esteem.
Since
the monastery at Qumran was destroyed by an earthquake in 31 B.C., the
Essenes probably dispersed throughout the country; Herod favored them, but
they were hated by the Pharisees. After
Herod's death the Essenes withdrew to Qumran again and
lived there until A.D. 68, when the monastery was destroyed by the
Romans. After that, some of the Essenes
became Jewish Christians who were called Ebionites.
The
community of the scrolls formed a part of the Essenes. John the Baptist was certainly a kind of
Essene, and since Jesus was baptized by John and took over his mission, he too
must have been closely related with this group.
Some of Jesus' words can be better understood from the writings of Qumran ,
and in his mission traces of the three offices of prophet, Right-Teacher, and
Messiah of Israel can be seen.
MR-35
R
RABBAH (רבה, great city) Ancient
capital of the Ammonite kingdom, 36.8 km east of the Jordan River in the upper
Jabbok River valley, and cite of present-day Amman, Jordan. Rabbah is the only city east of the Jordan Philadelphia
The vast majority of
the beautiful and important ruins which are still visible at Amman Philadelphia Decapolis held by the Arabs until finally defeated by Herod in 30 B.C.
RAGES (Ragoi)
An important, strategically located, and well-fortified city in
northeastern Media of the Persian Empire , about 8 km southeast of Tehran Caspian Sea , the city played an important
part in the wars of Media and of Alexander the Great and his successors. Modern excavation indicates occupation from
about 5000 B.C., with interruptions for earth-quakes and invasions, to the
1300s A.D.
RAGUEL (רעואל (reh oo ‘el), friend of God; Ragouhl) A member of the tribe of Naphtali living in Ecbatana
RAPHAEL (רפאל, God heals)
The angel of healing, who was sent to remove the white film from the
eyes Tobit. In Enoch 20 he is recognized
as second in the order of angels. In
many ways Raphael may be compared to Michael.
The appearance of these angels in the later literature is evidence of
the growing importance in popular belief of angelic intervention. The names of specific angels are rarely
mentioned in the Bible.
RAPHAIM (Rafain) Ancestor
of Judith; listed in her genealogy as son of Ahitub, and the father of Gideon.
RAPHIA (Rafia) A city about 24 km southwest of Gaza Palestine Asia to Egypt
RAPHON (Rafwn) A city near Carnaim where Judas Maccabee defeated the
Syrian general Timothy.
RASSIS (RassiV) A place, apparently near Cilicia , the people of which were
devastated by the army of Holofernes.
Some have thought it to be a corruption of “Tarsus
RATHAMIN (Raqamin) One of the three toparchies which Demetrius Nicator of Syria Samaria
RAZIS (RazeiV) One of the elders of Jerusalem
MR-36
RESURRECTION IN
THE APOCRYPHA. “Resurrection” is a blanket term
covering three different, but related beliefs: The essential self is awakened
from the sleep of death shortly after the latter occurs; the bodies of the dead
will eventually be resuscitated, at the end of the present world; and the
righteous among the dead will be raised, after a Last Judgment, to another
plane of existence, or to the world succeeding this one.
In most of the intertestamental scriptures, the
doctrine of resurrection is fused with that of rewards and punishments. The most common form of the belief is that
all soul will be summoned to judgment at the last day, but that only the
righteous will be resurrected, the wicked being then consigned to final
perdition or “second death.” There is no
decisive evidence that resurrection was ever conceived during this period as
universal. What was envisaged is simply
a general awakening of the dead to judgment, but not of all of them to ultimate
revival. It is laid down that pious
Gentiles, too, and not only Israelites, were eligible for a portion in the
world to come. There was, however, a
marked tendency to Israelites as especially qualified for the privilege. This privilege was operative only so long as Israel
There was likewise a divergence of
view about whether the dead would be resurrected to live a life of immortality
or actually to populate the newly created world. In the course of time the distinction was obscured,
and the two terms came to be used as synonyms, to denote the hereafter in
general. There was likewise some
difference of opinion as to whether resurrection was spiritual or corporeal.
There was no consensus concerning
resurrection among the various Jewish sects which flourished in the days of the
Second Commonwealth Qumran sect is ambiguous. There is reference to the belief that the
faithful share a common estate with the angels.
Is it assurance of eventual resurrection, or simply the inclusion of the
earthly devout in the wider “community of the saints.”
A fragmentary passage in the War
Scroll has been interpreted as an allusion to “those that shall rise from the
earth.” More probably the Hebrew words refer to “upstarts on earth” who will
then be discomfited. Lastly allusion is
made to a “raising of the flag” by them “that lie in the dust.” This passage has been construed as a
reference to resurrection, but it could just as easily refer to an impious
insurrection of earth-born reprobates.
The views expressed in the Scrolls
accord in general with those attributed by the Jewish historian Josephus to
the Essenes. They held that although
bodies were perishable, souls endured and mounted upward. The statement in Ecclesiastes 12 that “the
dust returns to the earth as it was, and the spirit returns to God who gave
it,” reproduces the Iranian doctrine to the effect that the body will rest in
the tomb after the soul “beloved of God, has been sent to the heavenly throne
of Zeus Oromasdes.”
The Sadducees denied resurrection
altogether (“All things that are of earth turn to the earth again, and all
things that are of the water returned to the sea.” Pharisees, on the contrary accepted the
doctrine, excluding only certain specific categories of apostates from the
privilege of resurrection; it is their attitude that became the norm in
Judaism. It is also expressed in the
ancient form of the doxology (Kaddish) now recited at the burial service. Furthermore, a profession of belief in the
immortality of the soul and the resurrection of the dead occurs at the
beginning of the daily morning services.
It is commonly asserted that the Samaritans had no belief in
resurrection. The fact is that a fairly
detailed description of that event at the end of this age is given by the
writer Marqeh of the 300s B.C. The
question is whether Marqeh’s statements represent a genuine Samaritan view
adopted or whether the Samaritans borrowed from Islam in medieval times.
There are a number of ideas from
folklore later associated with the doctrine of resurrection that are worth
mentioning and are given here in italics. The righteous will shine like stars. It is important to point out that the
location of the dead in the stars was a common idea in Greco-Roman
paganism. It is likewise abundantly
attested in classical Greek and Roman sources.
The righteous will be clad in special pure garments and will emit a
special fragrance. Over against
them, the wicked will emit an evil smell, redolent of dust and fire, and their
garments will be tattered.
REWARD (שחﬢ (shah
khad), gift, present, bribe; ﬤﬧש (saw kawr), hire, wages; שלם (shah lam), repayment of a debt; misqoV (me thos), hire, wages; antapodosiV
(an tah po doe
sees), repayment of a debt) The
English word “reward” may have a neutral meaning of “recompense for good or
evil,” but most often it suggests a benefit or favorable compensation.
The apocryphal book
Tobit illustrates a mechanical righteousness done with a view to reward. He tithes, gives alms, buries the dead, makes
pilgrimage. His piety appears to go
unrewarded. The theme of the book is
that good deeds register with God, and finally Tobit is vindicated. Both Tobit and II Esdras refer to the
treasury of good works laid up. In the
book of Judith one theme is basic: If the Israelites sin, they are vulnerable
to the enemy; but if there is no transgression, God will protect the nation
from attack.
MR-37
In Ecclesiasticus we see the individual application of rewards and
punishments. “Do no evil, and evil will
never befall you.” The freedom of people
to choose good or evil is in their own hands.
The author is aware of a certain skepticism concerning God’s account,
but he warns that suddenly God’s wrath will go forth. Mattathias in I Maccabees exhorts his sons to
be zealous for the law, and he recalls how the great leaders of the past had
been rewarded for their faithfulness to God’s commandment. II Maccabees enlarges the range of reward and
punishment with the idea of resurrection.
RHEGIUM (to Rhgion (toe reh gee
on)) A town in southern Italy Rome Calabria Strait of Messina island of Sicily 10 km away.
According to Strabo, Rhegium was
first settled by Chaldicians, together with some Messenians from the Peloponnesus , the latter being the people who
settled Messina Sicily Syracuse
In 280, Pyrrhus, king of Epirus Italy Hannibal Rome
RHETORIC AND
ORATORY. In
English, rhetoric is descriptive, interpretive, or persuasive composition of
language; oratory is the art of effective public speech. Both rhetoric and oratory presuppose
grammar. In both Greek and Latin,
however, the terms were identical. The
origins of Greek rhetoric go back at least to Homer, and like all Greek art was
a natural expression of the Greek culture.
The earliest teachers of
the art rhetoric were two Sicilians, Corax and his pupil Tisias, who came to Athens
The criticism of Plato
and the constructive work of Isocrates, Aristotle, and Theophrastus led to a
higher conception of the orator and his art.
Yet even the teaching of rhetoric failed to maintain the highest level,
and the 300s saw the beginning of a florid, highly emotional style known as
“Asianic.” The so-called Progymnasmata, or preparatory exercises
from 100-1 B.C. provided a drill in various kinds of writing. The high standards of the past were recalled,
and the sober influence of Roman political thought and speech had a good and
growing influence. The Roman Cicero, who
studied in Greek schools and seriously cultivated the art all his life, is
probably the best example of the fusion of Greek and Latin oratory.
See also the
entry in the main section.
The earliest inhabitants
were of unknown Bronze Age origins.
Minoan merchants founded a colony on the northwestern coast near Ialysos
and were followed by Greek settlers.
Later, the Dorian Greeks developed the cities of Ialysos, Lindos, and
Kameiros. Liberated from the Persians, Rhodes became part of the Delian
League (477 B.C.). In 408 the three old
cities united in the foundation of a new capital, the city of Rhodes
The new Rhodian state became a
leading power in the Greek World. Its
capital was designed along modern lines of town-planning. The trade to Alexandria Cyprus Phoenicia port of Rhodes Colossus of Rhodes . This statue was demolished by an earthquake
around 227 B.C. The general earthquake
damage was soon repaired, but the Colossus was left lying near its base.
MR-38
RHODOCUS
(RodokoV) A
traitor of the Jewish army of Judas Maccabeus.
He communicated secret information about the Beth-zur citadel. He was discovered, found guilty, and
imprisoned.
RIDGE
OF JUDEA (o priwn
thV IoudaiaV (oh pree on
tes you day as)) Geographical term of obscure
meaning.
RIGHTEOUSNESS
IN THE APOCRYPHA. The Jewish literature of the period 200 B.C.-100 A .D. comprises the canonical books Ecclesiastes, Daniel
and Esther in the Old Testament (OT), the apocryphal and books written under an
assumed name, the writings of Philo and Josephus, and, perhaps, also the Dead
Sea Scrolls. In the translations of this
literature, the English words “righteous,” “righteously,” and righteousness occur
frequently. These terms are generic for
all forms of approved conduct.
Qualities of Righteousness—In the apocryphal
literature, righteousness is the possession of certain qualities and in the
absence of certain other qualities. Righteousness
is identified with: mercy; benevolence;
love of neighbor; humility; truthfulness; even-handed justice; integrity; and
wisdom. The righteous keep their hearts
open to knowledge. They deem it a small
matter to be divinely afflicted. The
righteous person is free of avarice and oppression.
Judges,
to be righteous, must practice equity.
King Ptolemy was counseled: “. .
. never dismiss any of those [who built for him] and never compelled others to
minister to his needs without wages . . .” Officers over the forces should be
“those who excel in courage and righteousness and those who are more anxious
about the safety of their men than a victory.”
Characteristic
of the righteous is recourse to prayer.
At the last judgment, the righteous, imitating Abraham, Moses, and
David, will intercede for the ungodly.
Seldom is the word “righteousness” associated with ritual
conformity. Sometimes Hebrew idiom
permits the word “righteousness” to mean “credit for being righteous.” The most frequent of these special usages
lies in the application of the term to the practice of almsgiving. Later, in the rabbinic writings the Hebrew
word for “charity” is always the same as the Hebrew word for “righteousness.”
Yet
righteousness is, at the same, compatible with harshness, including death for
the wicked. Philo believes in righteous
anger. According to this literature, the
righteous will praise God’s justice when they will have the gratification of
beholding the extermination of their foes.
The sinners are told: “Know that
ye shall be delivered into the hands of the righteous, and they shall cut of
your necks and slay you, and have no mercy on you.
Divine Righteousness: Benefits and
Penalties—The ancient belief that God is righteous occurs in this
literature countless times. God is the
light of righteousness, righteous beyond reckoning. Among God’s righteous attributes are God’s
mercy and compassion. God’s righteous
works include God’s choice and consecration of Israel Israel
Similarly righteous are God’s commands, and precepts. The specific details of the law are,
according Aristeas, not trivial; their purport is that of fostering righteousness. The prohibition of eating “wild and
carnivorous” creatures “thus teaches that those for whom those laws were ordained
must practice righteousness in their hearts.
In return, God finds the righteous acceptable. Their prayers are a delightful offering to
God. God rejoices in and rewards and
loves the righteous; God blesses and is faithful to the righteous. God confers upon the righteous joy and
ecstasy. Tilled in righteousness, the
earth will yield abundance. Also
envisioned is success at war. King
Hezekiah’s righteousness was King Hezekiah’s hope. Some of the gains are spiritual. God strengthens the spirit of righteous
people. To the righteous and the elect
will be disclosed the mysteries of creation.
MR-39
Not
all the authors agree with those who hold that the righteous are guilty of no
sin. The righteous do, at times, sin;
but God abstains from harsh judgment. God’s
wrath abates toward such as have piety in their souls. The punishment of the righteous is not
destructive. Lest sinners gloat at
seeing the righteous punished, the punishment of the righteous is mild. The present world is unable to furnish the
righteous with all they have been promised.
The righteousness of God requires that the righteous be favored at the
last judgment, and the Son of Man will be a staff to the righteousness that
they do not fall. For the righteous
there will be resurrection from the grave.
Though they sleep the long sleep, they can look forward without
fear. For them is prepared all goodness,
gladness, and glory.
Then
there is the messianic age when the righteous shall have, upon their faces, the
brightness of God. The light of the sun
will, in fact, not be needed, for upon the righteous shall the light of eternal
life. Accor-ding to Enoch, there exists
for the righteous a garden located in the third part of the fourth quarter of
the earth. Slavonic Enoch foretells the
great epoch when all the righteous shall be assembled and time shall be no
more. “There will be neither years nor
months nor days nor hours.” People were
intended to be righteous and deathless in a paradise on earth. As a slave obtains his freedom if he does
well by his master, so do the righteous enter the kingdom celestial.
The
souls of the righteous are in the hands of God.
Dwelling with God, they have peace, refreshment, and rest. They are destined for gladness and glory. We are told that the spirits of the righteous
abide in a compartment near a bright spring of water. In that world the role of the angels is
frequent and varied. The “secrets of the
righteousness” are mentioned several times.
Considering the rest in store for them, the righteous do well to leave
this transient and evil world. Divine
righteousness consists also of austerity.
Life’s adversities are punishments divinely and deservedly inflicted
upon individuals and upon nations.
Human
Righteousness—Some authors are
persuaded that God alone possesses righteousness. Some writers, expounding no doctrine of total
depravity, refer to their own age, or to some bygone age as utterly lacking in righteousness. One author puts it that the very laws which
are tokens of righteousness are evidences of unrighteousness; without these
laws, men would constantly transgress
Other
stretches of this literature affirm or assume that the world does contain, has
contained, or will contain some righteous people. Philo contends that, in man, righteousness
and unrighteousness are mixed together, and that while every vice loves the
body, righteousness loves the soul. One
author observes that, if the righteous are few, it must be remembered that the
more precious a metal, the rarer its deposits.
The temptations of Satan need not always hold sway. Righteousness is asserted to have been widely
prevalent at certain times in the past, and righteousness will again prevail at
some epoch in the future. In the
messianic age, righteousness will be universal; the gods will vanish and sin
will become extinct.
Certain
individuals have been outstanding for righteousness: Enoch; Noah; Abraham;
Isaac; Jacob; Joseph; Moses; David; Solomon; Elijah; and Hezekiah. Often the Jews are spoken of as a righteous
nation or race or people or seed. At
least Israel Jerusalem
Much
is said about the teaching of righteousness and teachers of righteousness,
which included: Enoch; Noah; Abraham;
Levi; Judah; Benjamin; Ben Sirach; and the translators of the first five books
of the Old Testament (i.e. Pentateuch).
As a specific personality, a “Teacher of Righteousness” is mentioned in
the Zadokite Fragment. Here, however,
this Teacher of Righteousness and the Messiah are not identical.
MR-40
Contrary to much that we have noted
already, the lot of the righteous on earth is often described as a sad one, of
being subject to the abuse and the persecutions of the wicked. Victims of such mistreatment include the
righteous Son of God, and the entire Jewish nation. But, upon the arrival of the Messiah, God
will bring retribution and deliverance.
Then the righteous will have rest from oppression, and will wield
dominion. The foes of the righteous will
vanish like straw in fire, shall sink like lead in water. Armed with God’s
breastplate, 60 chosen of the righteous will hasten to Jerusalem
This
literature is not without breaks in its dominant orthodoxy. Here and there reference to the supernatural
subsides, and righteousness is seen in a context of natural, observable
occurrences. “Because of unrighteous
dealings, injuries, and riches got by deceit, the kingdom is translated from
one people to another.” On the whole,
this literature allows scant leeway for skepticism. It understands social conflict as a warfare
between the “righteous” and the “wicked.”
“God created both righteous and sinners as he created day and
night.” These writings do not discern
that one group may brand as sinful what another lauds as meritorious, while
both groups can be similarly conscientious and sincere.
In
the literature of the same time that does not conform to the above description,
there is reference to the Sadducean denial that the dead will be
resurrected. Some uncertainty is divulged
as to what will befall the righteous at Jerusalem
ROMAN EMPIRE. The complex of political,
military, social, and cultural forces which controlled the Mediterranean world
and Western
Europe
from 30 B.C. to the 400s A.D.
Expansion, Social Structure and Conditions—The
Roman Empire came into existence through a long process of development in which
the little city-state of Rome (traditionally founded in 753 B.C.) extended its
power at first under kings, some of them Etruscan, and after 508 under a
republican form of government headed by two magistrates elected annually. For two centuries Rome Rome Italy North Africa occupied part of Sicily Rome Spain Hannibal Alps to invade northern Italy Carthage Rome Carthage
Because of the Grecian contacts made
in these ventures, Greek teachers came and strongly influenced important
circles of Roman nobility; internal conflicts began to occupy attention. In the Republic’s last century, from 135 to
30, class struggle became acute. There
were 2 slave wars in Sicily Italy
A
popular dictatorship under Marius was followed by a conservative reaction under
Sulla (88-79). After Sulla’s death the
Republic was rent by conflicts between some generals and the Senate. In 63, Cicero
MR-41
At its height the Empire thus
included the whole Mediterranean world and extended from Britain south to
Morocco, east to Arabia, North to Turkey and Rumania, and west along the Danube
to the Rhine; in Germany and to the east there were rough forts and legionary
camps. During the first century of the
Christian era there were between 25 and 28 legions constantly under arms. At
full strength each legion was composed of 6,000 officers; they often functioned
with 3,600.
There are widely varying estimates
of the Empire’s population; the most widely accepted figure is 54,000,000, of
which about 1,000,000 lived in Rome
The structure of the state had the
Emperor at the top with his council next, then the heads of government
departments, the administrators of Rome
Much of our information about Rome Rome
It should not be forgotten that
there were innumerable families in which such erosion had not taken place. The influx of wealth at Rome
Agriculture,
Commerce, and Finance—The most important crops of the Empire were wheat,
grapes, olives, and vegetables. Most of
the mines belonged to the state and were worked by slaves; marble was quarried
chiefly in Greece Mediterranean and other seas by ship. Highwaymen
continued to present difficulties, but at sea the pirates had been
exterminated. In the early Empire 120
vessels a year sailed to India, exporting linen, coral, glass, and metals, and
importing perfumes, spices, gems, ivory, pearls and Chinese silk.
Money and banking was one of the
most important factors in the unity of the Roman Empire .
Under the Republic both foreign and domestic conflicts were almost
invariably followed by a sharp reduction in the value of currency. In 51 B.C. the Senate set the maximum interest
rate at 12 %, though loans in kind and on crops and cargoes were exempted
because of the risks involved. Under the
Empire, the basic silver coin, the denarius, retained most of its value and
circulated at par with the various local drachmas of the East. There was only a gradual decline in the
denarius’ weight and silver content, which led eventually to devaluation and
price inflation in the 200s A.D.
Roman currency was a medium not only
of exchange but also of propaganda. The
first portrait of a living ruler was ordered by the Senate in 44 B.C. Religious, military, and political symbols
were placed on the reverse sides of various issues: informing the people of
the emperor’s health; his long reign; the births of his children; his choice of
an heir; military campaigns; and posthumous deification of himself. Roman coins had a function resembling one of
the functions of modern postage stamps.
Custom duties levied at various
transit points and levies of 1% on sales, and 5% on emancipations made up Roman
taxes. There were also bequests, fines,
booty acquired in war, and the proceeds from the state-owned mines that
provided revenue. A direct tax call tributum was levied outside Italy Rome
Under the Republic most taxes were
paid into a treasury controlled by the Senate, but under the Empire this
treasury became much less important than the fiscus, theoretically the private property of the emperor and his
heirs. In Augustus’ day the annual
income of the treasury was apparently around 400,000,000 sesterces, but by the
time of Vespasian imperial revenues may well have approached 2,500,000,000;
taxes were almost constantly increased.
State policy was not guided by economic considerations. In 33 A .D. Tiberius suddenly enforced an
old law requiring capitalists to invest in Italian land, which caused a
financial panic.
MR-42
Roman
Law, Science, and Literature——The
Empire was governed by men and law. In
the last century of the Republic, Roman law had become highly developed; the
emperors, as chief magistrates rendered decisions which themselves had the
force of law. Jurists were members of
the imperial council, and their decisions too were binding. The law was concerned not only with
protecting the state, the citizen, and private property, but also with social
conditions. In imperial times greater
stress came to be laid upon equity than upon the observance of exact legal
forms. Long before the triumph of
Christianity there was an improvement in the legal status of women and of
slaves. Slaves could possess property,
and use it to buy their freedom.
It should not be supposed that
the Romans shared the modern notion of punishment as aimed at the correction
of the offender. The penalties for
private offenses redressed the wrong; penalties for public offenses were
essentially vindictive. For example,
Christians were to be crucified, beheaded, buried alive, drowned, and delivered
to wild animals.
In the field of scientific knowledge
and research, little fresh investigation was carried on, and in medicine the
influence of philosophical system overshadowed and often prevented clinical
observation. The gulf between theory and
technology may be illustrated by Roman failure to employ the ancient equivalent
of the machine gun, invented by Greeks but not used by the legions. It might better be said that science was held
in check by idealistic philosophies and inadequate technical work. The existence of slavery made unnecessary a
quest for labor-saving devices.
The beginning of the Empire was
heralded by a group of semi-official poets and historians. The most important of these poets was Vergil,
whose Aeneid traced the history of Rome Mount Vesuvius .
In addition to these major
writers there were also writers who were the forerunners of those who wrote the
apocryphal Acts of the 100s A.D. Another
aspect of writing was the development and use of anthologies in school
teaching; literary criticism also flourished.
The student would analyze grammar, composition, and style, and to judge
the authenticity of documents.
Philosophers felt
free to reinterpret the old Roman official religion and to distinguish
“philosophical theology” from “civil theology.”
12 gods were officially recognized by the state and served by a college
of 16 pontiffs, the chief being the Pontifex Maximus; this body presided over
the official rites. There were other
colleges, such as the augurs, who discovered whether the gods approved or
opposed official actions. Rome
ROMAN RELIGION. The origin of Roman religion was prehistoric, with mainly
“primitive” rites and practices, observed and perpetuated with no attempt at
explanation, with no reference to any divine revelation or command, but solely
because they belonged to ancestral custom.
These rites had been found to work or—more often—their neglect had been
found to be disastrous; sacrifices, supplications, purification, banquets for
the gods, and other ceremonies were used.
Roman religion was essentially a system of ritual, without a theology,
or an authorized set of religious instruction.
This “cult of the gods” meant more than worship and included care,
devotion, and constant attention to their needs.
Hence, Roman religion was
legalistic, with specific requirements which men must meet if they hoped for
specific responses. A Roman said, “I
give so that you may—or will—give,” and made it clear that his gift was meant
for one particular god or group of gods and no other. The language is as specific and explicit as a
lawyer’s formulation of a deed, a transfer, or a claim. What the higher powers required was often set
forth, as well as special divine guidance in severe crises. The Sibylline Oracles and the art of
divination were an inheritance from the Etruscans, though the origin of
divination was very ancient and probably must be traced to Babylonia .
The general character of ancient
Roman religion was “primitive,” with many surviving features of animism,
magic, and demons. Certain “sacred” places
or things possessed supernatural power, or were possessed by supernatural
beings. In dealing with the
supernatural, it was of paramount importance that the correct formula be used. Any omission, repetition, or transposition
was unlucky and invalidated the whole procedure. Most of the rites were so old that there was
no explanation of either their origin or their meaning.
MR-43
They originated when only semi-personal local
powers were addressed, not gods. We
cannot ascribe all this to “primitive” religion, about which we know very
little. What we find in Roman religion
is the survival, modification, and eventual submergence of prehistoric rites
which were shared in some measure with other Italians. The oldest inhabitants of Italy
Early
Roman Religion—The traditional date of the founding of Rome Palatine and Capitol. The temple of the state cult was erected on
the Capitol, but the real center of Roman religion throughout its history was
the Palatine, the hill below which lay the Sacred Way, and where lived the
Vestal Virgins. The Sacred Way Rome
The traditional founder and
codifier of religious law and lore was the second Etruscan king, Numa
Pompilius, sometime after Rome
The ritual itself
can be learned from the ancient antiquarians (e.g. Augustine, Dionysius of
Halicarnassus, Plutarch, Marcobius, Athenaeus, Johannes Lydes, or Ovid. The descriptions are exact, but their
interpretation is overlaid with later Greek explanations. The purifying of the fields was brought about
by walking around ones farm dressed in white, leading animals that would later
be sacrificed. The rustic rite
Terminalia was the annual sacrifice at the landmark.
Then there was the
“October Horse,” when the off-horse in the team which won the chariot race was
sacrificed to Mars; its head and tail, which were powerful magical instruments,
were cut off and sent by runner to the king at Regia. All this had nothing to do with Mars as the
god of war, but as giver of the harvest: so powerful was he that all things
were his gift. It was because of later
Greek influence and the identification of the Roman gods with the Greek that
men came to think of Mars as the Greek war god Ares. It was this early agricultural religion which
formed the fundamental and most permanent stratum of Roman religion. With the
Etruscans and the Greeks had come temples, statues of gods, divination, and
mythology.
State Religion—The public religion of the Roman state was thoroughly
organized, with a pontifical college at its head which oversaw all public rites
and religious ceremonies. The pontiffs
or flamens, consisted of the three
main ones from the priesthoods of Jupiter, Mars, and the Vestal Virgins,
varying numbers of pontiffs from other priesthoods, and the Rex sacorum (king of rites, who
inherited the ancient priestly functions of the early kings), who presided over
the college with the Pontifex Maximus. In time the whole system fell into disrepute,
when commanders and magistrates did not hesitate to manipulate the auspices or
the calendar in furtherance of their own purposes.
Originally a simple
“primitive” religion, thoroughly legalistic and believing that right moral
action brought happiness, the “religion of Numa” might have developed into a
noble code of morals and worship. But
the Roman religion was not permitted to develop in this way; foreign
influences, especially mythological and artistic, doomed it to sterility and
eventual extinction. The Greek influence
brought to bear, not only an alien mythology, but also a skeptical philosophy.
It was the age of
syncretism. As Rome Sicily Carthage Mediterranean , and conquering all lands
surrounding the Sea and far inland, new tendencies had steadily arisen. The gods of the conquered had flocked into Rome
Similarly the rites
of the Greek Dionysus (Roman Bacchus) were introduced, though with severe
restrictions after the drunken worship of the Bacchants in 168 B.C. The Senate issued a decree forbidding Romans
to take part in them. The steady influx
of foreign gods and their cults continued, in later centuries with increasing
popularity.
See
also the entry in the main section.
MR-44
Description—As
reported by Pliny the Elder in 73 A .D., Rome Rome 21 km in circumference. The city was divided into 14 districts. The total length of all the roads within Rome 96 km .
Starting clockwise in the north, the seven hills of Rome Quirinal , Viminal , Esquiline , Caelian , Aventine , Palatine , and Capitol. Like modern cities, Rome Quirinal , Caelian , Palatine , and Capitol.
On the west side of
the Tiber River Temple of Vestal Virgins
Under Augustus
(ruled 27 B.C.-14 A .D.) the city was divided into 14
districts. Beginning in the center with
Forum Romanum and Palatium and moving clockwise, the other 12 districts
are: Via Lata; Alta Semita; Esquiliae;
Templum Pacis; Isis and Serapis; Caelimontium; Porta Cabena; Circus Maximus;
Avetinus; Trans Tiberim; Piscina Publica; and Circus Flaminius. The fire in Nero’s reign (64 A .D.) left only four districts
untouched, while three were completely leveled.
After Augustus’ victory at Actium (31 B.C.), he transformed Rome temple of Apollo
The public buildings of Rome
See also the entry in the main
section.
ROSETTA STONE. A partly broken copy of a decree
honoring Ptolemy Epiphanes, discovered near the village of Rosetta Nile in Egypt
MR-45
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