U
UCAL (לﬤא) A name in title of a collection of proverbs,
the last word in the first verse of Proverbs 30; one of two pupils or
contemporaries to whom Agur addressed his reflections. The primary Greek Old Testament finds no
proper name and translates the word using the root kalah (I cease). This would
provide a typical Hebrew parallelism, as in “I am weary, O God; I am spent.”
UEL (אואל, strength of God, will of God)
One of the contemporaries of Ezra who are listed as having taken foreign
wives. The name as given in the
Masoretic Text is unusual and may be corrupted or contracted.
UGARIT. A city-state near the
Mediterranean coast in northern Syria Cyprus
Location and History—Ancient Ugarit was located about
a mile from the Mediterranean coast, in a little valley between the 2 arms of
the river Nahr el-Fidd. It lies due east of Cyprus. Ugarit had a port which could be used by sea-going trade ships. It is called Ras Shamra (“Hill of Fennel”)
now, because fennel is growing there.
The tell or ruins has the form of a trapezoid; the longest side is about
600 meters, and the diagonal from the longest side to where the two shortest
sides meet is about 1000 meters. The
hill is 20 meters high.
Located
close to the coast, Ugarit was an important center of trade. The road from Egypt to Asia Minor went
through Ugarit. Another trade route went
from Ugarit to Aleppo, Mari, and Babylon.
The sea route to Cyprus was a short one, and Ugarit very early traded
with the Aegean islands. One of the main
exports was bronze. Copper was imported
from Asia Minor and Cyprus, and bronze was produced in Ugarit. The city also delivered timber to Egypt. There were factories of purple dye.
Civilization
on the Mediterranean’s eastern shore goes very far back in time. North of Ugarit traces of early Paleolithic
civilization (before 8000 B.C.) have been found. The earliest settlement at Ras Shamra dates
from Neolithic times (6000). The settlement
on top of this can be dated around 4000-3500. It shows a finely developed
civilization from the Chalcolithic Age, with beautifully painted pottery. In the next settlement level (3500-2100), the
pottery changed character. This was the
period of the Early Bronze Age.
Influence from Mesopotamia can be seen clearly in this period. King Sargon I of Agade and Naram-Sin marched
toward the west and reached the coast in the 2300s. Trade contacts were more fully developed
after the con-quests of Sargon. This was
the time of ethnic movements in many parts of the Near East. The Amorites established themselves in Syria and
also reached Ugarit, probably coming along the coast.
The
next settlement level in Ras Shamra comprises the centuries 2100-1500 (Middle
Bronze Age), one of the most turbulent periods in the history of the near
East. The Ras Shamra temples seem to go
back to this period; one large temple was dedicated to Baal, and another to his
father, Dagon. The royal seal of the Ugaritic
kings, seems to be from this time. The
king of this time and his father seem to have been part of the Amorite migration
wave. Nearby the Hittites were building
up their state too, and Hurrians (Horites) and Mitannians caused
disturbances. Indo-European tribes came
plundering along the coast of the Mediterranean.
The
Egyptians were also influential in Ugarit. Pharaoh Sen Usert I married Princess Khnumit,
who was probably of Syrian origin. The
Hyksos overran Egypt, and Ugarit was probably shaken up by the Hurrites, but it
soon recovered. Its ancient trade
relations with Crete were developed at this time; new houses were built, often
in Cretan style. Thut-mose I and III
tried to re-establish Egyptian domination, as evidenced in the settlement level
from 1500-1100. Thutmose III (1490-1435)
stationed an Egyptian garrison in Ugarit in order to keep the area under control. From 1440 to 1380 an Egyptian-Mitannian
alliance existed. After that the
Hittites soon took the place of the Mitannians.
King Niqmad II of Ugarit could only nominally accept the rule of Pharaoh
Amen-hotep IV; actually he sided with the Hittites.
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What
we know about the last centuries of Ugarit’s history comes from letters,
juridical and economic documents found in the royal palace. In the 1300s, Ugarit was shocked by an
earthquake, which devastated the city and the port. The Egyptians tried to resume their
domination after the battle of Kadesh, where Pharaoh Ramses II (1290-1224) fought
against the Hittites. In 1276 the two
combatants made a treaty. The Mycenean
influence was great in this time, so extensive that Ugarit tended toward
becoming a Mycenean colony. Along the
coast from the north came new invaders in the 1100s, the so-called Sea
People. On their way toward the south
they burned and destroyed Ugarit, which was never rebuilt.
Texts:
Baal-Anath—As will be shown later, an abundance of literature was
found at Ras Shamra in the form of clay tablets. Many of the texts found were of a
mythological character, and they have yielded a wealth of information on the
religion of Syria and Canaan from 2000-1500 B.C. The mythological texts can be arranged
according to their contents. There is
some disagreement among scholars about the arrangement of the long Baal-Anath
text.
The liveliest picture of the
Ugaritic gods and their life is given in the Baal-Anath cycle. The god El is represented as king of the
gods. He was considered to be the father
of the other gods, with the exception of Baal, who was called Dagon’s son. Baal was a rain, storm, and fertility
god. He was also seen as a bull, living
in the fields, where he met the goddess Anath.
Baal and Anath may have been regarded as a unit in their capacity as
fighters. Baal was also called
Hadad.
Prince
Sea asked El’s permission to build a palace and asked that Baal should be
delivered into his hands. El was on the
verge of agreeing, and this made Baal furious.
Baal wanted to meet Prince Sea in an open fight. With the help of two magic clubs he destroyed
Prince Sea. He was also victorious over
Lotan, the “crooked serpent.” Baal had a
palace built for himself on the mountain of the gods with the permission of
El. The rites indicated in the text
point to a New Year festival, of which Baal was considered the founder.
But
Baal was not always victorious. He lost
to Mot without battle. He has to go into
the earth, taking with him the clouds, the wind, the rains. As soon as El and Anath heard of the
disappearance of Baal, they mourned and sacrificed in a way that makes the text
look like a ritual manual. The throne of
Baal was taken by Asherah’s sons, Athtar.
Anath attacked Mot, split him with a sword, scattered him with a sieve,
grinds him, and feeds him to the birds.
Thus Mot may have represented the dry season with its drought and
ripening of fruits and grain. Baal
returned to the earth with his rain and fertility, drove away the substitute
king, and fought with Mot, whose turn it was now to go into the earth. Some scholars hold that Baal challenged El
and wanted to take over his position; others do not. The texts indicate that while Baal was a
young and active god, El was a more remote and shallow figure.
Other Texts—The Legend of Aqhat, most
likely a tale of death and resurrection, is tolerably well pre-served in clay
tablets. Aqhat was King Danel’s son, and
had a magical bow. The warlike Anath
coveted this bow, but Aqhat was unwilling to sell it. She had Yatpan transformed into an eagle, and
he killed Aqhat. Danel searched for and
found Aqhat’s remains, and punished the town where the murder had taken place; professional
mourners bewailed Aqhat’s death for seven years. Pigat, Aqhat’s sister, met Yatpan, who
betrayed himself under the influence of wine; here the text breaks off.
The
Legend of King Keret is harder to interpret and several attempts have been
made. King Keret of Hubur moans over the
loss of his palace, his wife, and his children.
El, the supreme god shows him what to do. Keret invades the country of Udum and marries
Huriya. Baal urges El to bless Keret,
and the king gets new sons and daughters.
Keret falls seriously ill; his son Elhu makes an offering to Baal. With the help of Sha’taqat, El restores Keret
to health. Keret’s son Yassib covets the throne of his father and is cursed by
his father. Some scholars think there is
a nucleus of historical facts in the Keret story; others consider it a cultic
myth, hero legend, or social myth.
In
the myth of the Rephaim (Shades), El summons the Rephaim to a sacrificial
feast, and announces that Baal is to be anointed with oil and become king. The role of the Rephaim is not clear, but
there are parallels with the Rephaim of the Old Testament. Baal fights against devouring beasts, but is
caught in a swamp. For seven years he is
kept there while “the watercourses are parched dry.”
Two
other texts worth mentioning are Shahar and Shalim, and Nikkal and Kathirat. In the first text, the goddesses Athirat and
Rahmay want to suckle children. Two
other women come to the seashore and tease the god El about his growing
impotence, and the text shows how El is rejuvenated. As with other texts, it speaks of sacrifices,
this one involving cooking a kid in milk over a fire. The two women bear two children, Shahar,
“Dawn,” and Shalim, “Dusk,” which the goddesses breastfeed.
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The
second text is about Nikkal and Kathirat (shining daughters of the crescent
moon). Nikkal-Eb is the moon
goddess/fruit goddess, and daughter of Hirhibi, king of summer. She is to marry
Yarih, the West Semitic moon-god. Yarih
brings the betrothal gift for Nikkal; her father sets the standard of the scales,
her mother the tray, her brethren arrange the plummets, her sister (attends) to
the weights of the scales.” So Nikkal-Eb
became “the light of Yarih. . . let her dowry and her wedding gifts be weighed
out with shouts of applause.” The poem
may possibly have been used at weddings, ensuring fertility for the bride and
bridegroom. On the whole, the minor
texts present additional features of the picture of the Ugaritic pantheon.
Excavations—The
above textual and historical detail given above are largely the result of
archaeological excavations of the early 1900s.
Even the exact location of Ugarit was unknown until 1928. A Syrian peasant found something that looked
like a tombstone a little north of Minet el-Beida and west of the tell (mound
of ruins) called Ras Shamra. The French
began work at Minet el-Beida in April 1929, and switched to Ras Shamra in
May. Soon they found the first 20
tablets. That was the beginning of a
series of important finds which have yielded texts of enormous value for the
study of Phoenician and Canaanite religion.
The tablets were made of clay and
were technically produced in the same way as Akkadian tablets. They used 30 signs that seem to indicate
alphabetical writing. The length and type
of the words indicated that the writing was Semitic. There were several indications that the
ancient city hidden in the mound of Ras Shamra is Ugarit, a city which was
already known from the Tell Amarna Letters (See
Tell Amarna).
Apparently
archaeologists had struck a complete library with hundreds of tablets about
myths and rituals. The house was an
official building with many rooms; the chief priest also lived there. Under the stone floor of one of the rooms a
whole collection of tools and weapons made of bronze was found. The building which housed the library, the
scribes’ school, and the chief priest was situated between two other great
buildings. They had similar size and
ground plan. One of them was a temple
built for Baal, the other one for Dagon.
They had a great inner room, the “holy of holiest,” where the images of
the gods were placed. The construction
of the Baal temple is much the same as that of King Solomon’s Temple in
Jerusalem.
The
texts give indications about the cult, as do several objects found in Ras
Shamra and Minet el-Beida. They include
golden amulets in the shape of a naked woman, an ivory box on whose lid a
goddess was carved, a statue of a fertility goddess, and statuettes
representing the weather and fertility god Baal. There is also a great stone stele or monument
of Baal. Some of Baal’s features on the
stele, such as the sword and the helmet, are not Egyptian but are clearly Asiatic.
The
houses which were found in the first layer were built in the 1400s and 1300s
B.C., were spacious and well built, around an open court. Under many of the houses or their courtyards
were found funeral vaults; the tombs were built in Cretan style. Much of the burial pottery is of late
Mycenean type, imported from Cyprus or Rhodes.
In many tombs there was an opening, a gutter in which water could be
poured down as libations for the deceased, and a pit which the water could run
into. The number of these pits and
similar arrangements indicate that this funerary rite must have been widely
observed.
During
wartime no excavations were done. Excavations
were resumed in 1949, and concentrated on the great palace. It was about 120 meters long (north-south)
and about 80 meters (E-W). Many fine
objects have been recovered from the palace.
The foot panel of the king’s bed is supposed to be the largest single
piece of ivory carving hitherto unearthed in the Near East. It is more than a meter wide and about 50 cm
high, carved with pictures from the kings’ private and official life. Another remarkable piece is the ancient
Ugaritic alphabet, with 30 letters, written probably in the 1300s and thus the
oldest known alphabet in the world.
The
most important discoveries in the palace were the royal archives. The archives in the palace yielded the
historical material which had been lacking until then. The west wing contained largely
administrative documents relating to the royal estates. The east wing had documents relating to the
capital city. The central archive
contained mainly legal documents. Almost
all documents were written in Akkadian, the international language of these
centuries. 12 names of Ugaritic kings
are found in the documents, which date from the 1700s to the 1200s. The seals on the royal acts all bear the same
design, that of homage to a deified king.
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ULAI (אולי, from the root meaning “first,” “chief,” “strong,”)
An artificial canal near Susa
ULAM (אולם, vestibule,
porch)
1. Ancestor and source of the
name of a Manasseh clan or family (I Chron. 7).
2.
The first son of Eshek; head of a Benjaminite family famous as archers (I
Chron. 8).
ULCER (ﬠפּל
(‘oh fel), swelling, tumor; King James Version translates as emerod (Old
English for hemorrhoid)) A lesion of the skin or mucous membranes,
most often describing plague boils.
ULLA (ﬠלא,
yoke) A family of the Asher tribe (I Chronicles 7:39 ). Some scholars think it should be one of the
names used shortly before this verse.
UMMAH (המﬠ, union,
connection) A town in the territory allotted to the tribe
of Asher. Ummah is generally regarded
as an error for Acco, which is missing from the list.
UMPIRE (מוﬤיח (mo key kha), arbitrator) A mediator
suggested in Job 9 for resolving the conflicts of God and humans.
UNCIAL. The form of letters—large and
rounded—characteristic of most Greek and Latin manuscripts of the Bible between
the 300s and 800s A.D. The term has been
traced to Jerome. Since the Latin word uncial means a “twelfth part,” it seems
likely that he is saying that books were being written with inch-high letters.
UNCIRCUMCISED. See Circumcision.
UNCLEAN. See Clean
and Unclean.
UNDERSETTERS (ﬤﬨף (kaw tayf), shoulders)
Obsolete term used in King James Version for the supports at the four corners
of the bronze stands in the temple (I Kings 7).
UNDERSTAND, UNDERSTANDING (See Glossary below)
Glossary
בין(bean),
distinguish, discern, know לﬤש
(shaw kole), intelligence
לבב (lay bawb), reasoning, will, judgment ﬠמש (shaw ma), hearken, obey
ginwskw (gih no skoe), mark, discern by noew (no eh oh), mind, intellect,
examination judgment
dianoia (die ah no eeah), thought, sunihmi (soo nih me), send
intention, mind together, comprehend fully
kardia (kar dee ah), heart, seat of intellect,
or inner, mental frame
“Understand”
and “understanding” are used to translate the distinctive vocabulary of Hebrew
and Greek wisdom literature, as shown by the glossary above. All understanding ultimately has its source
in God. Since the dividing line between “knowledge”
and “understanding” is a fairly fluid one, the English versions must sometimes
translate “understand,” where the Hebrew is content to say merely “know.”
Both
the Hebrew words bin and shakol imply an active and habitual
effort at comprehension rather than a mere possessing knowledge. It is significant that “understanding” or
“mind” must also be used in some cases to translate labab, the Hebrew word for “heart,” which for them is where a
person’s being centers and where the issues of his life are determined. English expressions like “a deep person” or
“a shallow person” are closely parallel in meaning to the Hebrew “a person of
heart” or “deficient in heart. In the New
Testament, the English verb “understand” is used to translate a large variety
of words with varying shades of meaning.
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UNFORGIVABLE SIN. A concept resting on 2 verses in
Mark 3: “Whoever blasphemes against the
Holy Spirit can never have forgiveness, but is guilty of an eternal sin.” This passage is commonly connected with
Paul’s 2 verses in II Thessalonians 1 about those who do not obey the gospel. The writer of the Letter to the Hebrews
declares that the apostate ones who crucify the Son of God cannot be restored
and that deliberate sin after baptism cannot be forgiven. I John hesitates to encourage prayer for a
brother whose sin is mortal.
Unforgivable sin fits into the
threat of stern judgment, which is a persistent feature of the biblical
background. But no emphasis on the
unforgivable sin should obscure or limit God’s purpose to forgive. The unforgivable sin does not describe a
single act that merits eternal judgment.
It does not refer to thoughtless or to the unevangelized heathen. Unforgivable sin applies to those who, after
knowledge, deliberately and persistently reject Christ and refuse to recognize
his work as the work of God. To reject
him after knowledge is to shut oneself from the gospel truth and to condemn
oneself to utter loss. For people to
deny what the Spirit attests is to make God a liar. In this perversion men lose the capacity to
accept God’s free offer of grace.
UNGODLY. See Godly.
UNICORN. (ﬧים, ﬧאים, ﬧאם (reh ‘am, reh 'ay
eem, ray eem), oryx, buffalo) King James Version translation of the
Hebrew words. The primary Greek Old
Testament translation may have been based on remarks by Ctesias (300s B.C.) on
the Indian rhinoceros, a beast which Ctesias had never seen.
UNIVERSE (kosmoV (kos mos), material world; ta panta (tah pan tah), all
things)
The translation of kosmos
in Galatians 4, Colossians 2, and of ta
panta in Hebrews 1.
UNKNOWN GOD, ALTAR TO AN (Agnwstw Qew (ag nos toe thee oh), to an unknown God)
Paul’s sermon on the Areopagus takes for its text the altar inscription
given above. Most classical scholars
hold that the use of this exact phrase is inconceivable. In the late 300s Jerome affirmed that it
actually ran: “To gods of Asia and Europe and Africa, gods unknown and
alien.”
Most modern commentators believe
that the dedication was in the plural and that it has been transposed into the
singular to make it conform to the doctrine of the author. There is plenty of evidence for inscriptions
worded this way. There are also
references in literature to sacrifices made to “a nameless god,” and “to the
appropriate god.” The phrase cannot be
taken as reflecting the notion of a god unknowable. The maker of the sermon was only adapting the
phrase to his sharing of the revelation of God in Christ.
UNLEAVENED BREAD (מצוﬨ (mah tsoth))
Bread or cakes baked without yeast, used on cultic occasions, and as
ordinary food. Unleavened bread is most
intimately associated with the Feast of Unleavened Bread, and was eaten with
bitter herbs. All the matsoth prepared for this feast were to
be consumed within the 7-day period. All
baked cereal offerings brought to the altar were also always unleavened
bread. From the beginning of the
harvest until the Feast of Weeks 50 days later, only unleavened bread could be
made with the new crop. The absence of
leaven was a mark of separateness or holiness; leaven was kept from God’s
altar, and in times of special sanctity from God’s people also.
UNNI (ﬠני, depressed)
1. A Levite; one of the musicians who
accompanied the ark of the covenant when David had it brought up to Jerusalem
UNPARDONABLE SIN. See Unforgivable
Sin.
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UNTIMELY BIRTH (נפּל (neh fel), from the verb-root meaning “to fall”; ektrwma (ek tro ma)) In antiquity a birth which occurred before the full
gestation period of approximately 40 weeks.
The term as used in the Bible includes both abortion before the 4th
month and premature delivery after the 6th month but before full
term. Numbers 12 may indicate a missed
abortion, in which a dead embryo is retained.
The rendering in Isaiah 14 is an attempt to clarify a textual obscurity.
Paul’s use of ektroma suggests the unusual nature of
his entrance into Christianity; he was a miscarriage of Judaism. The other apostles experienced a normal
spiritual birth. Paul was keenly
sensitive to the errors of earlier days, and consequently was overwhelmed by
his dramatic conversion through divine grace.
UPHARSIN. See Mene,
Mene, Tekel, and Parsin.
UPHAZ (זפּאו) A place mention as a source of gold
(Jeremiah 10; Daniel 10). Its location
is unknown. The suggestion has been
advanced that “Uphaz” is an error for “Ophir,”
UPPER BETH-HORON. See Beth-Horon.
UPPER CHAMBER. See Chamber.
UPPER GATE (שﬠﬧ ביﬨ יהוה הﬠליון (sha ‘ar bet [yah veh] ad oh nie haw ‘el yone), gate of the high places of the
house of Yahweh) A gate built by Uzziah for the temple of Jerusalem
UPPER ROOM (anagaion (an ah ga eon); uperwon (oo peh ro on)) The place chosen by Jesus for his last meal
with his disciples. This commonly is
taken to be the same room in which the disciples gathered after the
Ascension. This would be a room in the
upper story of a large house or a room on the roof; the Old Testament mentions
similar rooms (I Kings 17; II Kings 4, 23; Judge 3). According to Epiphanius, Hadrian found the
Upper Room when he visited Jerusalem in 135 A.D. The room, called the Cenacle, is now part of
the mosque En Neby Daud.
The ruins of Ur were first
investigated in 1854 and later in 1918-19 and 1922-34. The site of Ur is roughly oval in shape, with
the long axis of the oval pointing north-south.
Excavators found a North and a West Harbor by the river. The first third of the northern half contains
a large Neo-Babylonian palace. A
rectangular walled sacred area occupies the second or middle third of the northern
half of the site, and was fully explored by the 1922-34 expedition. The third just north of the middle of the
site contains a large area of private dwellings just south of the sacred area,
and it dates from the 1900s-1800s B.C.
Ur’s
sacred area contains in its northwestern part the city’s main temple,
E-temen-ni-guru, dedicated to the moon-god Nanna (Sin). Entrance to the temple was through a great
towered gate in the northeast side and then through a large forecourt. In this court’s northwest corner the
excavators found a group of raised platforms for thrones, presumably for the
use of visiting gods. Across from the
entrance, stairs led to a larger rectangular court on a higher level. This court was surrounded by rooms serving
ritual and practical purposes.
In
the middle of this court stood the temple tower, or ziggurat from the 2100s or
2000s B.C.; it was a stepped pyramid
with 3 massive steps. A long, monumental free staircase led up to
the first stage at the middle of its eastern façade, while two flanking staircases
led up along the façade from the north and south to join the middle
stairway. Smaller stairs led from here
up to the second and third stage, on top of which stood the temple of the
moon-god itself.
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From
the court of the ziggurat, a gate and stairway from the southeast corner led to
a lower terrace. To the left of this
gate, between the smaller forecourt and the ziggurat court wall, the excavators
found the main storehouse of the temple. To the right of this gate lay a complex which
housed a Ningal temple, a temple kitchen, and the quarters of the human bride
of the moon god. Southeast of this gate,
excavators came upon the scant remains of the royal palace of Shulgi of the
Third Dynasty of Ur.
Southeast
of the palace was the mausoleum of the Third Dynasty kings. Below the floors of the rooms in the back of
the building two brick stairs led down to underground tomb chambers. On the southeast and northwest of this building
smaller, similar buildings had been added which likewise had underground chambers. The mausoleum of the Third Dynasty kings was
the last tomb in a royal cemetery located in this area and dating back to the
2600s.
This
cemetery yielded a wealth of treasures and threw new and unexpected light on
ancient Sumerian burial customs and beliefs.
The findings left little doubt that the kings and queens of Ur were
followed in death by their courtiers and personal attendants, including
soldiers. The peaceful position of their
bodies suggests that they had voluntarily let themselves be killed. This custom is now attested also in literary
texts, particularly the story of the death of Gilgamesh.
At
the site of the royal cemetery and at other points of the mound deep soundings
were made to clarify the layers of habitation.
In two of these soundings the excavator found, separating the early and
later layers of the Ubaid Period, a heavy deposit of silt laid down by water. The excavator saw it as evidence of a
catastrophic flood covering all of Mesopotamia in Ubaid times. He further assumed that memories of this were
handed down to form the stories which in turn influenced the biblical story of
Noah and the Flood.
In
an area between the sacred area and the West Harbor, sections of private houses
from the Old-Babylonian period (1500s and earlier) were excavated. These were believed to be 2-story private
houses of Ur in the times of Abraham, which assumes that Abraham was a
historical figure and that an accurate date may be assumed for his life in
Ur. They had a central court surrounded
by rooms, a staircase in the corner leading up to an upper story with rooms
opening upon a balcony. Here and there
among the houses small public shrines dedicated to minor deities were found.
UR-MARKUS. See entry in
the Bible Versions section of the Appendix.
URBANUS (OurbanoV)
A
Christian man greeted by Paul. He is
referred to as a “fellow worker”, together with Prisca, Aquila, and Timothy.
URI (יﬧאו, shining) 1.
A Judahite; the father of Bezalel, one of the builders of the
tabernacle. 2. A gatekeeper in the restored
temple. 3. The father of Geber, the
district officer in Gilead under Solomon.
URIAH (היﬧאו, light of the Lord)
1. A Hittite; one of the Mighty Men
in David’s order of the “Thirty.” It is
possible that his name originally was Ariya.
It is more probable that he received the name Uriah from a sojourning
father, or that he himself took the name when he was a sojourner in
Israel. His wife was Bathsheba. King David tried to make it appear that Uriah
was the father of the child that resulted from David’s affair with Bathsheba,
but he failed. Uriah carried to Joab the
letter in which David had Uriah placed in the front of a sortie, which would
retreat from him so that he would be slain.
Afterward David took Uriah’s wife to be his wife. Nathan declared to David that his action was
a sin against Yahweh.
2.
A priest; 1 of 2 reliable men, evidently prominent and trusted citizens,
whom Isaiah got as witnesses to a prophetic oracle written on a tablet (Isaiah
8). 3. Chief priest in Ahaz’s reign; almost certainly
the same as 2 above. Ahaz instructed him
to build a new temple altar like the altar he saw at Damascus. It was ready when Ahaz returned; perhaps
Uriah should have protested. Isaiah’s
estimation of the integrity of this priest suggests that the addition of this
altar may have been for aesthetic rather than political reasons (II Kings 16).
4. A
prophet, son of Shemaiah of Kiriath-jearim (Jeremiah 26). Uriah was remembered as having been killed by
King Jehoiakim for declaring a message similar to Jeremiah’s temple
sermon. 5. The father Meremoth; a
descendant of Hakkoz (Ezra 8; Nehemiah 3).
6. One of the men, named without title or
paternity and thus probably laymen, who stood with Ezra at the public reading
of the law.
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URIEL (ﬧיאלאו, light of
God)
1. The chief of the sons of
Kohath in David’s time. He assisted in
the bringing up of the ark of the covenant from the house of Obed-edom to Jerusalem
2.
A resident of Gibeah whose daughter Maacah was the mother of Abijah, king
of Judah (I Chronicles 11, 13). Maacah
is represented to be the daughter of Absalom. Most likely Maacah was the
daughter of Uriel and Tamar, who was the daughter of Absalom.
URIM AND THUMMIM (ﬧיםאו (light, knowledge) and ﬨמים (truth)) 2
objects used in a oracle by which the will of God in relation to particular
problems was ascertained. The exact
meaning of the words “Urim and Thummin” is not known.
One laid before God a question
couched in precise words and expected an answer, usually “yes” or “no.” Clear examples of the direct
question-and-answer type of procedure are I Samuel 23, 30. David consulted them before he was king. David addressed 2 direct questions to God
about Saul and avoiding being turned over to him. The 2nd time David
asked about the pursuit and overtaking of an enemy.
There are no examples of a “no”
being given to an inquiry, but in 2 cases God’s refusal to respond was the same
as a “no.” Saul inquired in the hope of
receiving some sign of encouragement.
However, “the Lord did not answer him, either by dreams, or Urim, or
prophets.” According to Numbers 27
Joshua was commanded to direct his questions to the Priest Eleazar, who “shall
inquire by Urim before the Lord.
Other
instances of the use of oracles are mentioned in I Samuel 14. The first is an inquiry about a missing
person. In the second case, Saul wanted
to find the guilty person who had broken his oath forbidding the people to
partake of food until evening. Saul
says: “If this guilt is in me or in Jonathan
my son, O Lord, God of Israel, give Urim; but if this guilt is in the people of
Israel, give Thummim.
The
question is sometimes introduced by the technical term sha’al bayehovah, “to inquire of the Lord.” The functionary in charge of the divining
implements was a priest. The technique
employed by the priest in handling the Urim and Thummin is not stated; the
chief priest handled questions of national importance. In complicated issues the oracle’s objects
were used several times in order to decide the case in the precise manner. According to Exodus 28; Levitcus 8, the chief
priest carried the Urim and Thummim.
Deuteronomy 33 implies that all of the Levi tribe had access to the Urim
and Thummim.
Uncertainty
exists concerning the material the Urim and Thummin were made of, their shape,
and the signs or symbols impressed on them.
According to the texts the Urim and Thummin were deposited in the
“breastpiece” of the high priest, a small, square pocket made of multicolored
stuff and twined linen, which the chief priest carried on his “heart.” This information would suggest that the Urim
and Thummin were small objects, perhaps in the shape of dice, made of metal or
precious stones and having some symbols impressed on them. The symbols were necessarily reduced to a
single letter or sign on each object.
The
Urim and Thummim are not mentioned after the period of David. In Ezra 2, Ezra perhaps meant to introduce
them anew after a lapse of around 5 centuries.
It is the opinion of some scholars that rise of prophecy made the use
of the Urim and Thummim unnecessary.
However, the remarks in Hosea 4, Ezekiel 21, and Zechariah 10 seem to
point to the continuous use of oracles throughout the pre-exilic period.
URN (stamnoV (stam nos), wine jar, pot) The term used in Heb. 9 refers to the golden
jar which held the manna.
USURY (נשך (naw shak), interest; tokoV (to kos), “offspring,” produce of
money lent ) See
also Interest, Debt.
UTENSILS (ﬤלים
(keh leem), vessels, tools, weapons) A general term for implements, vessels,
weapons, instruments, etc.; translated “utensils” with particular reference to
the gold and bronze instruments of the tabernacle service. The word is also used of the utensils of the
temple.
UTHAI (ﬠוﬨי,
aided by the Lord) 1. A
descendant of Judah resident in post-exilic Jerusalem (I Chronicles 9)
2. Son or descendant of Bigvai;
listed as having returned from Babylon (Ezra 8). 3. According to the RSV, head of a family of
temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel, but read “Uta” in the King James
Version.
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UZ (ﬠוץ) An undefined territory in the Syrian Desert east of Palestine Damascus
UZAI (אוזי, in Arabic “quick”) The father of Palal, who
helped Nehemiah with the repair of the Jerusalem
UZAL (אוזל, to depart) a
son of Joktan and hence the name of an Arabian locality. Uzal (Auzal) was the original name of Sanaa,
the capital of Yemen. The present name means
“beautiful” in Ethiopic. One scholar
holds that the name Auzal was not supplied to the city until as late as the 200s
A.D. He suggests for Uzal a town in the
neighborhood of Medina, named Azalla, near Yarki and Hurarina, which recalls
the two sons of Joktan who are mentioned just before Uzal.
Ezekiel 27 has a special bearing
on the identification of Uzal. The verses
of the passage where Uzal is mentioned all start with the name of a
country. It seems better, therefore, to
regard the first 3 words of the verse as names:
Waddan, Javan, and Uzal. Waddan
is a station on the Medina-Mecca pilgrimage. Javan could have been a Greek
colony in Arabia.
UZZAH (ﬠזה, ﬠזא, strength) 1. A Levite of the family of Merari. His father was Shimei, and his son was Shimea
(I Chronicles 6). 2. An obscure Benjaminite (I
Chronicles 8).
3.
A son of Abinidab, fatally smitten while he was driving the oxcart which
conveyed the ark of the covenant toward Jerusalem (II Samuel 6; I Chronicles
13). David arranged transport of the ark
that had been in the house of Abinadab for two decades. Uzzah drove the oxcart bearing the ark amid
the accompanying festal procession. The
ox stumbled, and Uzzah put out his hand to secure the ark and suddenly
died. His death was attributed to his
violation of the holiness of the ark.
David immediately cancelled the journey, depositing the ark nearby in
the house of Obed-edom (II Samuel 6; I Chronicles 13).
4.
The owner of the garden where kings Manasseh and Amon of Judah were buried
(II Kings 21).
5.
Ancestor of temple servants who returned from exile with Zerubbabel (Ezra
2; Nehemiah 7).
UZZEN-SHEERAH (אזן שאﬧה (‘ooz zen sheh ‘eh rah), ears (i.e.
summit) of blood-relations) A village built by Sheerah, daughter of
Ephraim, along with Upper and Lower Beth-horon, possibly 4.8 km. southwest of
Lower Beth-horon; most scholars feel the site has yet to be identified.
UZZI (יזﬠ, shortened form of “the Lord is strength”) 1. A priest in lists of the Aaronite descended
from Eleazar and an ancestor of Ezra (I Chronicles 6; Ezra 7). 2. A descendant of Tola; an ancestor and the
origin of the name of an Issachar clan. 3. A
name that is part of a grouping of post-exilic Benjaminite families, or a list
of families of Zebulun (I Chronicles 7).
4. A post-exilic Benjaminite family name (I
Chronicles 9). 5. A Levite descendant of
Asaph, overseer of the Levites in Jerusalem.
6. A priest, head of the priestly family of
Jedaiah during the time of the post-exilic high priest Joiakim (Nehemiah 12). 7. A Levite individual or division in the
clockwise procession on the walls of Jerusalem during their dedication
(Nehemiah 12).
UZZIA (ﬠזיא,
shortened form of “the Lord is strength”) An Ashterathite name among the 16 names
added by the Chronicler to the list of David’s “30 Mighty Men” (I Chronicles
11).
UZZIAH (אזיה, “the Lord is (my) strength”)
1. A Kohathite of the Levi tribe
(I Chronicles 6). 2. Father of Jonathan, one
of the 12 stewards of King David’s property.
Jonathan was overseer of the king’s treasuries.
3.
King of Judah (783-742 B.C.); son and successor of Amaziah; also known
as Azariah. The 2 names of this king
differ by only one consonant. One of
them could be a throne name and the other a personal name. Both names are used alternately in II Kings
15. The explanation is probably to be
found in the king’s leprosy. When he could
no longer perform his royal duties, he became a private citizen and Uzziah
again.
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Uzziah
was 16 years old when he came to the throne, and he is said to have reigned for
52 years, which cannot be correct. The
Annals of Assyrian Tiglath-pileser III indicate that Uzziah disappeared from
the scene after about 42 years. They
mention Azriau and give a different picture of the power and position of Judah
than the Bible’s picture. With the death
of Jeroboam II of Israel around 746, Azariah was probably the outstanding
leader in the West. He was a leper but
still seems to have been the power behind the throne.
The
writer of Kings records but little of the long and prosperous reign of
Uzziah. The Chronicler has preserved a
long list of his achievements, which are generally accepted as reliable
history. The Chronicler records a
successful campaign against the Philistine cities of Gath, Jabneh, and
Ashdod. Most likely Uzziah subdued the
northern and eastern parts of Philistia, and established fortified posts which
enabled him to maintain control over the caravan routes.
The
general emphasis of the Chronicler here seems to be on military campaigns in
Arabia. Uzziah’s purpose in these
campaigns appears to have been control of the trade routes from Arabia. That
Judah controlled Elath at this time has verified by archaeological
investigation. It is interesting to note
that no interference or activity is recorded on the part of the powerful
northern kingdom. Fortress towers were
built in Jerusalem and also in the Negeb to control the trade routes from
Arabia and served as a defense for flocks and herds. The king had great water cisterns hewed out
and seems to have had a personal interest in farming. Archaeology indicates that the 700s B.C. was
the period of greatest building activity in the Negeb. The king also built up his army and supplied
the troops with weapons and equipment, including a new type of weapon, either a
new type of catapult mounted on a tower, or a shield for protecting slingers
and bowmen.
Around
750, Uzziah was stricken with leprosy.
Jotham must have been acting as regent in Judah before the death of
Jeroboam in Israel around 746. From the
Chronicler’s point of view Uzziah must have been guilty of some serious crime
to have become a leper, such as an invasion of the temple to burn incense; the
writer of Kings makes no mention of this incident. It is questionable whether it actually
happened, but it was a popular tradition.
A break between the king and the priesthood over the king’s right to
burn incense may have inspired this tradition.
Because of his affliction he was relieved of his duties. Jotham was appointed as regent for Uzziah,
but his reputation was remembered and his influence was still felt in state
affairs.
The
Chronicler adds that on Uzziah’s death, “they buried him with his fathers in
the kings’ burial field.” In 1931 a
carved stone tablet was found on the Mount of Olives, with this inscription in
Aramaic: “Hither were brought the bones
of Uzziah, king of Judah—do not open.”
Later generations believed that Uzziah’s reign was exceeded in glory
only by Solomon’s. This period marked
the zenith of Judah’s power.
UZZIEL (ﬠזיאל,
God is strength) 1. A grandson of Levi; one of the 4 sons of
Kohath, and brother of Amram, the ancestor of Aaron and Moses. He was the father of Mishael, Elzaphan, and
Sithri, and the founder of a subdivision of the families of Levites, called
Uzzielites (Numbers 3, I Chronicles 26).
Members of this subdivision were among the Levites who transported the
ark when David brought it to Zion.
2. One of the captains of a
successful expedition of Simeonites against the Amalekites at Mount Seir.
3. A Levite of the family of
Jeduthun in a list of Levites with which the Chronicler sets forth the
cleansing of the temple by Hezekiah (II Chronicles 29).
4.
A name in a group of either Benjaminite or Zebulunite families (I
Chronicles 7).
5. A post-exilic family of singers
of the Heman group (I Chronicles 25) In verse 18 he is called Azarel.
6. A member of the guild of
goldsmiths. He helped to rebuild Jerusalem’s
wall (Nehemiah 3).
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V
VAIN, VANITY (הבל (heh bel), vapor, mist; ﬧיק
(reek), empty; שוא (shaw veh’), evil, wickedness; ﬨהו (toe hoo), empty, chaos; mataioV (mah tah eeos), ineffective,
useless; eikh (ahee
keh), without plan, rashly; kenodoxoV (keh no doks os), vainglorious)
Besides the modern sense of “conceited,” the term also renders many
Hebrew and Greek words expressing something ineffective, unreliable, transient. The Hebrew words translated as “vanity” meant
something insubstantial or chaotic. It
never means the subjective attitude of false pride as in modern English. The most common Hebrew word translated
“vanity” in the Old Testament is hebel (vapor).
In general, all enterprises from which
God is excluded are vain. To resist God
is a particularly vain thing.
To
take Yahweh’s name “in vain” (Exodus 20) is invoke it lightly or to no purpose,
especially in blasphemy. The notion of
delusion or unreality underlies the use of hebel
to describe the life of the Gentiles or of the man who is indifferent to divine
law. This way of life is haphazard and
futile, the prey of chance rather than being governed by moral law. In Proverbs 13 hebel as a means of acquiring wealth is contrasted with solid work,
and refers to appearance or pretension apart from substance. Hebel also
refers to idolatry (Deuteronomy 32; I Kings 16;
Psalm 31; Isaiah 57; Jeremiah 2, 8, 10, 14, 16, 51; and Jonah 2).
Other
Hebrew words translated as “vanity” include riq,
which may mean “annihilation,” but generally expresses the futility of life
apart from the guidance of God. The
Hebrew shave may mean the frustration
of a futile life, but generally means unreality; it may simply mean “lie,”
“delusion.” “Vanity” is expressed also
by tohu (emptiness, chaos).
In
the New Testament the Greek word mataiotes
has a similar range of meaning, from “nothingness” to “chaos,” and the futile
life without God’s law. The “empty
phrases” in Matthew 6 are meaningless babblings, sounds without sense. To give God only lip service is to worship
him “in vain.” To turn away from Christianity
is to “receive the grace of God in vain.” In Acts 14 pagan gods or their cults
are called “vain things.”
VAIZATHA (ﬨאויז) One
of the ten sons of Heman slain by the Jews following Haman’s attempt to destroy
the Jews (Esther 9).
VALLEY (ﬠמק
(‘eh mak), deep place; ﬠהבק (be keh ‘aw), low plain; גיא (gaw yaw), low plain; נחל (nah khal), stream
or valley through which they run; פּלהש (sheh fah law), low country or plains; faragx (fah rah geks), cleft, ravine)
The translation of several Hebrew and Greek words in the Bible referring
to the depressions between mountains, broad plains or plateaus, narrow ravines,
and low terrain.
In the Old Testament, ‘emaq is mentioned in designating the
level areas or valleys adjacent to 13 places, including Achor, Gibeon, and
Hebron. It also designates the valley of
decision, the King’s Valley, and the valley of Jehoshaphat. Beqe’ah
is employed to designate the level
areas or valleys near Jericho , Lebanon Megiddo
Canaan’s
contours are such that valleys are in every part of the land and vary
considerably in shape and size, from the precipitous canyons and narrow gorges
between Bethlehem and the Dead Sea, to broad plains like those near
Jezreel. Valleys are mentioned in
designating boundaries and scenes of battles.
Valleys were grazing areas for herds.
The destruction or filling of the valleys is used in figures of speech
referring to God’s judgment on an unfaithful people. The “valley of deep darkness” or “shadow of
death” symbolized life’s dangers, and the “valley of the son of Hinnom” meant
the place of eternal punishment (see Gehenna).
VALLEY GATE (הגיא ﬠﬧש (sha ‘ar ha gaw yaw))
A gate of Jerusalem Valley of Hinnom
VANIAH (וניה, possibly
Persian, meaning worthy of love) One of the Jews listed as having married
foreign wives (Ezra 10).
VANITY. See Vain,
Vanity.
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VASHTI (יﬨוש, possibly Persian for “one who is desired”) King
Ahasuerus sent for Queen Vashti his wife, to show off her beauty to the
guests. When Vashti refused to come, the
king banished her. It was the banishing
of Vashti which led to the search for other beautiful maidens, which led to
Esther being the new queen.
Historically, Xerxes queen was
Amestris and not Vashti. The attempt to
identify Vashti with Stateira, Artaxerxes’ wife, does not seem wholly successful. It is possible that Vashti represents an
Elamite goddess allied with Haman and Zeresh against the Babylonian Marduk and
Ishtar.
VASSALS. A subject or subordinate ruling
under another. Frequently the vassal was
the defeated king appointed to rule in a subservient position. The Hebrew words for Prince and Servant are
used for such vassals. Vassals usually
had some dignity and wealth left to them in spite of tribute required by the
conqueror.
VAT, WINE VAT. A square or circular cavity cut
into the rock, in which grapes and olives were pressed into wine and oil. See Wine,
Oil.
VAU (ו) The 6th letter of the Hebrew alphabet as it is
placed in the King James Version at the head of the 6th section of
the acrostic psalm, Psalm 119, where
each verse of this section of the psalm begins with this letter.
VAULTED CHAMBER (גב) The translation of gab in Ezekiel 16.
VEGETABLES (זﬧﬠנים(zay reh ‘oh neem), legumes) The vegetables most commonly cultivated in Palestine
VEIL (צעיף (tsaw ‘eef); ﬧﬢיﬢ (raw deed), mantle; צמה (tsah maw); מסוה (mah seh
veh); מסﬤה (mas say keh), covering; מספחוﬨ (me seh fa khoth),
quilt, coverlet; ﬨמטפח (me teh fa khat), mantle, cloak) There is relatively little
material on veils worn by women in the Old Testament. The Talmud has no designation for
“veil.” Thus, several of the terms
rendered “veil” in the Bible do not really refer to veils but to ornamental
coverings.
Tsa’if in
the Rebekah passages is the veil she wore before she married Isaac; it was the
mark of a marriageable maiden. Such a
veil was used by Tamar as a disguise to trick Judah. Radiyd
was the veil-like garment worn by the women of Jerusalem. Tsamah was
an ornamental face veil. Maseveh was the mask Moses covered his
face with, so that the Israelites were able to abide in his presence. Misephakhoth
was a covering for the head that was connected to sorceresses.
VEIL OF THE TEMPLE Most Holy Place
At Jesus’ death, the veil of the
temple was rent from top to bottom, thus exposing the Most Holy Place to
view. The meeting place of God was now
open to all. The Letter to the Hebrews
uses the veil as a symbol of the flesh of Christ.
VENGEANCE (נקם (naw kawm); ﬢםגאל ה (go
‘el ha dawm), avenger (redeemer) of the
blood; ﬠיש (yaw sheh), assist, save, set free; ﬧיב (reeb), plead or
defend a cause; השיב (heh sheeb), return punishment to)
The restoration of wholeness, integrity, to the community by God or
man. The go’el hadam (avenger of blood) is the next of kin who is required
by law to requite the life of his kinsman.
The primary Greek translation of
the Old Testament shows considerable variety in the rendering of these Hebrew
terms into Greek. Seldom does
“vengeance” in the Bible carry the connotation of “vindictiveness or revenge.” Vengeance was understood to be a necessary
means for the healing of the breach made in the solidarity of the family or
the community as a result of manslaughter.
The avenger of blood was considered to be acting in God’s stead. When the writer of the second part of Isaiah
refers to Yahweh as redeemer, Yahweh has the role of vindicator and
avenger. The cries to Yahweh for
vengeance, therefore, are cries for redemption, restoration, and healing.
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In
the New Testament vengeance is reserved to God alone for its execution. At the last day, he will execute vengeance
upon all who stand in opposition to his purpose, thus displaying the redemption
and vindication that has already been provided in Jesus Christ.
VERMILION (ﬧשש (shaw
sher), red color, red ocher) A mineral product obtained from the widely used
red ocher; an ideal pigment for painting.
For the interior of rooms a renewable coat of pigment was spread over
plaster. For exterior surfaces, ocher was
combined with clay and was fired to produce a solid enamel. Jerusalem, pictured as the prostitute
Oholibah, “saw men portrayed upon the wall in vermilion” (Ezekiel 23).
VERSIONS,
ANCIENT. See the Other
Ancient Versions section of the
Introduction to the Bible Versions part of the Appendix (C).
VERSIONS,
ENGLISH (REFORMATION-1900). See the English Versions (Reformation-1900) section of the
Introduction to the Bible Versions part of the Appendix (C)
VERSIONS,
ENGLISH (1900s- ).
See the English Versions of the 1900s section of the Introduction to the Bible Versions part of the Appendix (C)
See the English Versions of the 1900s section of the Introduction to the Bible Versions part of the Appendix (C)
VERSIONS,
MEDIEVAL (PRE-REFORMATION).
See the Medieval (Pre-Reformation) Versions section of the Introduction to the Bible Versions part of the Appendix (C)
See the Medieval (Pre-Reformation) Versions section of the Introduction to the Bible Versions part of the Appendix (C)
VERSIONS,
NON-ENGLISH (REFORMATION-1900). See the Non-English Versions (Reformation-1900) section of
the Introduction to the Bible Versions part of the Appendix (C)
VERSIONS,
NON-ENGLISH (1900- ). See the Non-English Versions (1900s) section of the Introduction to the
Bible Versions part of the Appendix (C)
VESPASIAN. Titus Flavius Vespasianus, Roman
Emperor (69-79 A.D.), founder of the Flavian Dynasty. He was born into an undistinguished Italian
money-lending family in 9 A.D. He became
praetor under Caligula, commanded a legion under Claudius, and became consul suffectus in 51. He was proconsul of Africa in the 60s, and in
66 accompanied Nero to Greece.
Vespasian was given command of 3
legions in order to suppress the Jewish Revolt.
He later came to believe that he should become emperor. He left the Jewish war to his son Titus and
proceeded in leisurely fashion to Rome, arriving in 70. Titus joined his father in Rome in 71. Vespasian made Titus his partner in the
imperial government. He recognized
Rome’s need for financial stability and therefore increased taxes. He died on June 24 of 79, and was succeeded
by Titus.
In
his reign, as far as we know, there were no persecutions of either Jews or
Christians. The devotion of the Jewish
historian Josephus to him doubtless improved the position of Jews in the
Empire, and Jewish Christians were fortunate to leave Jerusalem on the outbreak
of the revolt. On the other hand, he
retained Palestine as part of the imperial estate. The head tax of two drachmas was transferred
to the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. He
tried to provide a new solution for the problem of the succession but it lasted
only a generation; his real contribution was that he saved the Empire at a
time when it seemed to be perishing.
VESSELS (אגן (‘ah gawn), basin, bowl; ﬧקמז (me zeh rawk), sprinkling
dish or basin; ﬧטלאג (‘ah gah reh teh
lay), basin; ﬤפוﬧ (keh for), cup, bowl; ﬠי (yaw’), shovel)
Hollow utensils used for holding any substance, dry or liquid. The tombs around Jericho have furnished the
best finds in basketry, leather, cloth, and wood; tomb robbers removed metal
ware. Nomads had to have vessels made of
things other than pottery or metal.
Pottery was too fragile and metal was too expensive. The sedentary Israelites used leather for well buckets, water skins, and wineskins. Cloth bags were used for transport rather than storage. Wood was rarely used in vessels. The basket was a good cheap container for many materials. Pottery was in most cases the best container. Metal cooking pots and metal cups bear much the same names as their ceramic counterparts. Before metals came into common use for household dishes, some of the most expensive ones were made of stone. Alabaster was so beautiful a stone that it continued to be the container of the finest-grade perfumes. Stone vats were used in the dyeing industry. Glass was only coming into used by New Testament times.
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Pottery was too fragile and metal was too expensive. The sedentary Israelites used leather for well buckets, water skins, and wineskins. Cloth bags were used for transport rather than storage. Wood was rarely used in vessels. The basket was a good cheap container for many materials. Pottery was in most cases the best container. Metal cooking pots and metal cups bear much the same names as their ceramic counterparts. Before metals came into common use for household dishes, some of the most expensive ones were made of stone. Alabaster was so beautiful a stone that it continued to be the container of the finest-grade perfumes. Stone vats were used in the dyeing industry. Glass was only coming into used by New Testament times.
VESTIBULE (אולם (’oh lawm), porch) A
room at one end of a structure serving as an entry room; it is associated with
the temple in Jerusalem palace of King Eglon Moab
VESTMENTS (לבוש (leh bosh), garment; מלבשים (ma leh
bosh eem), garments) Used in II
Kings 10 and Ezra 3.
VIAL (פך (fa keh), flask; fialh (fee ah leh), bowl, shallow cup) The Hebrew word is used for the
container from which Samuel anointed Saul (I Samuel 10), a small Hebrew perfume
juglet. The Greek word is used several
times in Revelation (chs. 5, 15-17, and 21).
VILLAGE (ﬧחצ
(khaw tsar), walled village; kwmh (ko may), rural village) A collection of dwelling
places and other assorted buildings having a simpler organization
administration than a city. In the Old
Testament the distinction between city and village is generally
maintained. The city was larger and
walled. The village did not have any
strong defense. It probably had a guest
house, but no temple. In Talmudic times
a village was defined as a place with a synagogue.
In biblical times, even the city
was small. Megiddo Jericho Lachish Jerusalem
The villages were mainly involved
in agriculture. The surrounding lands
were variously shared by the inhabitants of the village. One or more threshing floors were the common
property of the village. The farmers and
shepherds were often away from the village in the spring and summer. Pasture land belonged to the village as a
whole. Nomadic enclosures or encampments
are called villages. Out of the villages
came many great men in Israel
VINDICATE (שפט (shaw fat), do justice to; krinw (kree no), to right a wrong) Word used to translate a Hebrew or Greek word
that emphasizes the determination of one’s cause as just.
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VINE, VINEYARD (גפן (gaw fen); ﬤﬧמי (kah reh
me); ﬧקהש (sheh ray kaw), choice
vines; ﬧבצ (baw
tsar), prune a vine; ampeloV (am peh los), grapevine; ampelwn (am peh lon), vineyard) Along with the olive and
fig trees, the grapevine is one of the most characteristic plants of Palestine Egypt Palestine Armenia
Isaiah
5 provides us with a detailed description of the planting of a vineyard. The climate of Palestine
The
usual method of planting vines was to place them in rows from 2.4 to 3 meters
apart. The stems were allowed to trail
on the ground, but the clusters of grapes were propped up with forked
sticks. Occasionally the vine was
allowed to climb a nearby tree.
Artificial trellises were not used until Roman times. After the vine had budded and the blossoms
had become ripening grapes, the vine dresser cut off the non-bearing branches;
the remaining branches were stronger and produced more fruit. Although the grapes began to ripen toward
the end of July, the actual harvest did not take place until August or September. The fully ripe grapes were either: eaten;
dried and made into raisins; boiled down into a thick grape syrup; or made into
wine.
Vineyards
were cultivated either by the owners or by hired laborers. It was also a common practice for a large
landowner to rent his vineyards to a tenant.
In Old Testament times various laws governed a vineyard’s use. The owner
was not allowed to reap a vineyard twice.
Gleanings were left for aliens, widows, and orphans. Vineyards were to lie fallow in the sabbath
year; he who has just planted a vineyard is exempt from military service.
“Vine”
and “vineyard” are often used as symbols of Israel Israel
In
the New Testament, Jesus often mentions vineyards in his parables. He compares the kingdom to a vineyard for which
its owner hired laborers; some worked all day, and some only a short time, but
all received the same pay. The Jews are
symbolized by wicked tenants of a vineyard who beat those sent by the owner
(God) to collect some of the fruit, and killed the owner’s son. More important is Jesus’ description of
himself as the “true vine” and his Father as the vinedresser. The main point is that Christians must “abide
in Christ” if they are to bear the fruit of faith. As Christ said, “I am the vine, you are the branches.”
VINE OF SODOM Israel
VINEDRESSER. See Farmer.
VINEGAR (חמץ (kho mets); oxuV (ox oos), wine of sharp flavor)
In biblical times vinegar was
most commonly procured from grape wine which had gone sour. It was also prepared by fermenting water,
grape skins, and grape stalks. When diluted,
vinegar was regarded as a refreshing drink.
More commonly, it was used as a condiment, particularly as a seasoning.
The
acrid qualities of vinegar are mentioned in Proverbs 10 and 25. In the New Testament vinegar is mentioned
only in connection with the crucifixion (Matthew 27; Mark 15; Luke 23; John 19). Jesus was offered vinegar shortly before his
death. The event was probably
interpreted as a fulfillment of Psalm 69.
Possibly the drink was the Roman posca,
made of vinegar, water, and egg.
According to Matthew 27 (King James Version, Jesus was offered vinegar .
. . mingled with Gall. The New Revised
Standard Version follows the earlier manuscripts and reads “wine” instead of
“vinegar.”
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VIOLET (ﬨﬤלﬨ (teh kay lat), from the verb-root
meaning “shell”) A purple-blue color obtained from a
Mediterranean mussel. Jeremiah 10 is
translated “violet,” elsewhere the translation is “blue.”
VIPER (ﬠהאפ (af ‘ah), adder; ﬠﬤשוב
(‘ah keh shoob), asp; שפיפן (sheh pee fone), snake; ecidna (eh kid nah), poisonous serpent) Any
of a family of poisonous snakes. The
meanings of the three Hebrew words cited above are not certain. The saw viper, the common Palestine
VIRGIN (בﬨולה(beh thoo
law); ﬠלמה (‘ah leh maw), maiden of marriageable age; parqenoV (pan theh nos), maid) One
who has had no sexual intercourse. The
Hebrew word usually refers to a woman.
The Greek word is translated “unmarried” in I Corinthians 7. The Hebrew word ‘ahlemah is used of young women who are ready for sexual relations,
although it does not reveal whether or not they are virgins.
Proof of virginity may be
demanded before the consummation of a marriage.
A root which signifies both “pierce” and “profane” is used in Leviticus
19, 21 in such a way as to suggest that the “piercing” is the result of sexual
intercourse. Her garb probably showed
that she had such a status. The Jewish
historian Josephus says that virgins in ancient times wore loose coats tied at
the hands and reaching down to the ankles, so that their long tight-fitting
inner garment might not be seen. The
veil may identify a virgin or it may be conformity to a custom which forbade a
woman to show her face to a stranger.
A
virgin’s greatest value, however, was her usefulness as a producer of children,
especially sons who could carry on their father’s name. To carry on the line of Abraham, the story of
Isaac’s marriage stresses the fact that Rebekah was a virgin. A daughter’s virginity was important to the
father, and if it was lost, the offender must pay him the marriage price and
make her his wife. The importance of
virgins to the life of the community is underscored when destruction overtakes
a population in a time of disaster. Conquerors did not kill virgins, although the other
women were destroyed. It was the duty of
the family, especially the parents, to protect the virginity of their
daughter. The father is to be
compensated for a false charge of unchastity; if true, the daughter shall be
stoned to death at the door of her father’s house. While protected, virgins in biblical times
were given considerable freedom.
The
“virgin” prophecy of Isaiah 7 reads in part:
“Behold, an ‘alemah, young
woman, shall conceive and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel.” An examination of the occurrences of ‘alemah in the Old Testament does not
remove the possibility of the meaning “virgin.”
Other notable uses of ‘alemah include: Genesis 24; Exodus 2; Proverbs 30; Song of
Songs [Solomon] 1. In none of these
references is the meaning “virgin” precluded, although in none is it
specifically affirmed.
By
far the most frequent use of the word “virgin” is in the Bible’s figurative
description of cities, nations and communities.
“Virgin daughter” describes: Jerusalem Judah Egypt Babylon
VIRGIN BIRTH. The doctrine, based on the
narratives in Matthew 1; Luke 1-2 and related passages in the Scriptures, that
Jesus was miraculously conceived by the Holy Spirit and born of a virgin
mother. There are similar stories in Ugaritic
(non-biblical) literature (e.g. “a virgin [bethulah]
will give birth”; and “Lo, a young woman [‘almah]
bears a son.” Similar wonder births are
found in Genesis 16, 17; Exodus 2; Judges 13; I Samuel 1; and Isaiah 8.
Isaiah 7:14 has received the most attention
because of its messianic associations.
There is vigorous discussion on its interpretation, especially the
meaning of the Hebrew word ‘alemah,
which means a “marriageable girl, young woman (before first child). Those who hold that it always carries the
connotation of an untouched virgin have great difficulty with Genesis 24,
Exodus 2, Psalm 68, Proverbs 30 and Song of Songs [Solomon] 1, 6. There is vigorous discussion on its
interpretation and especially the meaning of ‘alemah, which means a “marriageable girl, young woman (until the
birth of her first child).”
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There
is decisive evidence that the narrative in Matthew based the virgin birth on
Isaiah 7. Two facts establish the
miracle. After the betrothal and before they came together, Mary was found to
be with child “of the Holy Spirit. Two
scholars point out that this idea of the creative power of the Holy Spirit is
absolutely new and has no parallels in Jewish thought.
In
early Old Testament times betrothal was effected by payment of moher to the bride’s father as a
compensation for loss and presentation of gifts to the prospective bride. It is the statement that Jesus was conceived
and born to Mary “before” she and Joseph had sexual contact that constitutes
the second evidence of belief in the virgin birth. There was the law that demanded death by
stoning for both man and woman in cases of rape. Joseph was not only “unwilling to put her to
shame” (Matthew 1), but he also feared for his life. This explains why Joseph wanted to divorce
her quietly. The narrative teaches
clearly that the Holy Spirit, not Joseph, was the agency of the conception.
In
the nativity narrative in Luke 1-2 a more complete presentation of the
miraculous conception is found. Some
scholars view Luke 1 as an attempt to strengthen the idea of virgin birth. The Greek word parthenos appears also in Acts 21; parthenoi appears in Matthew 25 three times. Paul uses it with the associated idea of
purity in I Corinthians 7 six times.
This emphasis on purity develops into an ascetic meaning in Revelation
14, where chaste men are also called parthenoi. This emphasis of the New Testament on the
unmarried status which develops into ascetic purity is in favor of Mary’s
virginity, but classical and Koine Greek at times have only the idea of the
unmarried status.
The
literary factors in favor of the virgin birth in Luke’s narrative may be most
forcefully seen by comparing the annunciation to Zechariah with the
annunciation to Mary, which concludes with:
“The Holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will
overshadow you, therefore the child to be born will be called holy, the Son of
God. And behold, your kinswoman
Elizabeth in her old age has also conceived a son; and this is the sixth month
with her who was called barren. For with
God nothing will be impossible.” (Luke 1:36-37).
Special
attention should be given to three units of contrast: Luke 1:5-7 and 1:35 -38; Luke 1:18b and 34b; and Luke 1:15 and 35. In the first contrast, Elizabeth
The
problem of the virgin birth has brought forth claims of parallels. Philo Judeus uses the idea, but he is
speaking of the begetting of the soul.
Plutarch suggests that a woman can be approached by a divine pneuma, but he is speaking of real
sexual intercourse; the pneuma he
mentions is none other than Zeus. This
and other stories about how Zeus helped conceived Hercules, Perseus, and
Alexander constitute nothing more than mythological fornication.
VISION (חזון (kha zone),
sight, revelation; ﬧאהמ (mah reh ‘eh), seeing, looking, sight; orama (oh ray ma), a thing seen, sight,
appearance) In general the communication of that which is
not other wise accessible, divinely imparted to the man of God, most often the
prophet.
In Daniel the term is employed in
varying forms some 30 times and denotes the marvelous disclosure of that which
purports to be knowledge of future. In
Ezekiel the content of the vision ranges from “appearance of the likeness of
the glory of Yahweh” to the disclosure of the nature and meaning of present Israel Israel
Among
earlier classical prophets, vision is a conventional means of Yahweh’s
communication to the prophet of the meaning of immediate events in Israel
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VOCATION (ﬧאק (kaw raw),
to be called, chosen; kalew (kah lee oh), summons, invitation, a call to participate; eklegomai (ek leg om ahee), choose, select) The
biblical doctrine of God’s call to his people to become instruments of purpose
at work in history and to be the recipients of his grace and salvation. In the Old Testament, vocation is the
calling of Israel Israel
In the New Testament, the
doctrine refers to the calling of people to follow Christ, to become incorporated
in the fellowship of the church. In the
gospels and Acts, it is portrayed as the call, invitation, or summons of God
or Christ to humans, to sinners rather than to the righteous. A general calling or invitation of God is
portrayed in the parable of the banquet.
The call was rejected by the Jews and then was extended to others. Jesus called his disciples to follow him, and
he sent them out to preach and cast out demons.
In John’s gospel, the call of Jesus is described with the Greek word eklegomai. These references seem to be based upon a
general understanding of vocation as the call, invitation, or summons to
participate, to follow Christ, or to benefit from the divine blessing.
Kaleo is
used most frequently and with special emphasis by Paul. In the literature written or influenced by
Paul, vocation is the calling of God to men which has its origin in the divine
purpose of election. In Romans 8, Paul’s
description moves from predestination, through calling, to final
glorification. To participate in this
glorious design for the salvation of all, God has called both Jews and
Gentiles.
Since Christian has its origin in
God, it is described as a “holy calling.”
While the Christians’ vocation is rooted in the divine purpose, it has
at least the following implications for the present life of those who are
called. 1st in church
fellowship members are called to agios, saints, set aside from ordinary use,
dedicated, hallowed, and within the church, are called to certain duties by
certain gifts. 2nd, those who
are called must live morally upright and responsible lives. 3rd, Christians will ordinarily
remain in the status in which they were called. They will pursue their normal
occupations, while remembering to regard themselves as Christ’s servants. 4th, those who are called to the
divine purpose know that “in everything God works for good with those who love
him.” These biblical ideas are quite
different from the modern understanding of vocation.
VOPHSI (ופסי) The father of Nahbi, who was sent
from the tribe of Naphtali to spy out the land of Canaan
VOWS (ﬧאס
(‘eh sawr), obligation; ﬢﬧנ (naw dar); euch (you keh), wish, prayer) The
terms employed suggest the spoken word, the promise, or the “outgoing from the
mouth.”
In return for God’s presence,
protection, and provision, Jacob promised worship, shrine, and tithe. Jephthah
promised and made a living sacrifice for military victory, even though it meant
the sacrifice of his daughter (Judges 11).
Hannah prayed for a son, promising him to the temple (I Samuel 1). David sought to establish the ark at his new
capital by not going home, to bed, or sleep, until the ark was housed in Jerusalem Arad Arad
The
laws of the Old Testament and of the Mishna (official interpretation) of it
illustrate how constant a feature the vow is.
The main sources include parts of Leviticus 7, 22, Numbers 15. The
chapters devoted exclusively to vows are Leviticus 27, Numbers 6, 30, and
Deuteronomy 12. They deal with vows and
tithes, when they must be eaten, their condition, and how they may be commuted
or redeemed. Notably, Numbers 30
requires that vows be fulfilled, but the vows of an unmarried woman, or of a
married woman depend upon the will of her father or husband respectively.
In
the Psalms, laments frequently use the vow as an expression of hope of and
thanksgiving for deliverance. The
making and fulfilling of vows does not necessarily require the use of the word
“vow.” “Heart’s desire in Psalm 20 could
mean a royal vow. Correspondingly,
divine promises, oaths, and covenants to individuals and to Israel
VULTURE (ﬧנש (neh sher),
eagle; ﬧספ (peh
res), osprey; קאﬨ (kaw ‘at), from the root
meaning “vomit,” pelican; ﬧחם (raw khawm), small
species of vulture) Any of a several daytime carrion-eating
birds of prey. Vultures existed in Palestine Palestine
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