PERAZIM, MOUNT(פרצים הר, mount of overthrow, affliction) A place in Isa-
iah’s warning message (Isaiah 28).
PERDITION (בליﬠל (beh lee yah al), injury, destruction; apwleia (ah po lee
ah), destruction) In the Old Testament the Hebrew word appears in II Sa-
muel 22 and Psalm 18; it means death.
In the New Testament, apoleia is translated “perdition” 4 times and
“destruction” 14 times. In Revelation 17, the beast goes to perdition; he is
not to participate in the new creation. “Perdition” occurs in the phrase
“son of perdition,” referring to Judas Iscariot in John 17, and to the “man
of lawlessness,” who proclaims himself to be God in II Thessalonians 2.
(See also entries in the Old Testament Apocrypha/Influences Outside the
Bible & New Testament Apocrypha sections of the Appendix.)
PEREA (Peraia, other side) A district east of the Jordan
Herod the Great’s kingdom. The district was bounded on the west by the
Machaerus fortress marked the southern border. One of 3 main routes
During Jesus’ time, the Perea district was under the control of Herod
Antipas. Jesus and his disciples came into this territory after they left Ga-
through Samaria Judea , crossing into Perea along a Roman road
northeast of Bethel
ling and teaching ministry while he remained in this general area. Around
44 A.D., strife broke out between the Pereans and the Philadelphians. Un-
der Nero this territory was given to Herod Agrippa II until his death in 100;
thereafter it became part of the Roman province of Syria
PERESH (פרש, dung) Son of Machir and his wife Maacah, of Manasseh
(I Chronicles 7).
PEREZ (פרץ, breach, bursting forth) One of twin sons born to Judah and his
daughter-in-law Tamar. The story of his birth (Genesis 38) gives the po-
pular reason for the source of his name, but is more significant for its at-
tempt to account for the preeminence of the Perez clan over Judah's older
clans. The superiority of Perez must also be linked with the tradition that
David descended from this branch.
PEREZ-UZZAH (פרץ עזה, [God’s] bursting forth [upon] Uzzah) The name
given to the site associated with the threshing floor of Nacon commemo-
rating the death of Uzzah from touching the ark during David’s attempted
transport of the ark to Jerusalem
PERFECTION (תמים (taw meem), whole, sound; teleioV (teh lie os), com-
plete, fully developed) The classical definition of “perfection” is given by
Aristole; a thing is teleios when it “lacks nothing in respect of goodness or
excellence” and “can't be surpassed in its kind.” By this definition perfec-
tion is never realized. Ordinarily, in the Bible as elsewhere, “perfect” and
“perfection” denoted originally something other and less than ideal perfec-
tion (See above alternate meanings). More often than not, it is in this lower
or loose sense that these words are used in the Bible.
In the Old Testament more than half the 90 or so occurrences of ta-
mim refer to “unblemished” animals. In 7 passages, some word expressing
“full growth” or “maturity” is plainly required. In most of the remaining 12
instances it is fairly clear that the word is used in the lower sense men-
tioned above. Matthew 5 has “You, therefore, must be perfect as your hea-
venly Father is perfect”; Luke 6 has “Be merciful, even as your Father is
merciful. It is as impossible for people to be as merciful as God is, as for
them to be as perfect as God. This saying represents an ideal to which the
Christian must aspire, not a standard to which he must attain.
The verb teleioun is used more often in Hebrews than in any other
New Testament writing. The gifts and sacrifices prescribed by the law can-
not perfect the worshiper. The phrase “the spirits of just men made perfect”
may perhaps indicate that it is only after death that spiritual perfection is at-
tained. The only New Testament passage in which the word causes real
difficulty is Jesus’ “. . . I cast out demons and perform cures today and to-
morrow and the 3rd day I am (being) made perfect (Luke 13).
PERFUME (רקה (ray kay); קטרת (kut teh reth); חלהרי (leh haw reekh), as
odor, scent)Perfume occupied an important place in the life and worship of
the Near East in biblical times. The known sources of the biblical perfumes
are: Arabia (bdellium, frankincense, myrrh); India Ceylon Sri
In Bible times Arabia was not only itself the source of many perfumes,
but also the land of transit for perfumes from Africa and India Gaza
an important terminus for those caravans; Joseph was probably sold to
Arabian spice merchants. Job, who lived along the perfume caravan
routes, named one of his daughters Keziah, for cassia (aromatic bark).
P-51
The 1st maker of perfume mentioned in the Bible is Bezalel, who
prepared the holy anointing oil and the incense. Perfumers are men-
tioned in Jerusalem
the perfume varied according to the raw material and the purpose. The
raw material could be the hardened sap of a plant, the flower, or the root;
fresh flowers were squeezed. An important element in the perfumer’s art
was the blending of different scents. In the sacred anointing oil, myrrh,
cinnamon, aromatic cane, and cassia were combined. In the Hebrew’s
holy incense there originally was stacte, onycha, galbanum, and frankin-
cense. In the Herodian temple 7 other perfumes were added: myrrh, cas-
sia, nard, saffron, costus, cane, and cinnamon.
The nard ointment with which Mary anointed Jesus was in an ala-
baster jar. In a hot climate perfume is needed to counteract body odors.
In powdered form perfume might be carried in a bag inside the clothes.
Perfume was especially applied by women who wished to be attractive.
The clothes of the beloved in Song of Songs (Solomon), and of the king
in Psalm 45, were perfumed.
According to the Egyptian process, perfumes were undoubtedly
employed in the embalming of Jacob and Joseph. Nicodemus brought
a mixture of myrrh and aloes which was used in wrapping Jesus’ body.
In the Song of Songs (Solomon) both the lover and the beloved are meta-
phorically called perfumes. Perfume used as incense is a symbol of the
knowledge of Christ, of the self-sacrifice of Christ, and of the prayers of
the saints.
PERGA (Pergh) One of the leading cities in ancient Pamphylia, a province
on Asia Minor ’s southern coast. Perga is located in the Plain of Pamphy-
lia some 13 km inland from the coast and some 8 km west of the ancient
river Cestrus. A natural rock hill
on their first missionary journey setout from Paphos and came to Perga.
They traveled from Perga to the Antioch Asia Minor . In early Byzan-
tine times Perga was western Pamphylia's bishopric. The Christian ruins
consist of at least 4 churches: 2 large basilicas in the lower city (300s
A.D.); and on the citadel there are ruins of 2 medieval churches.
See also the entry in the Old Testament Apocrypha/ Influences Out-
side the Bible section of the Appendix.
Greek times. Pergamum Aegean
butaries. Pergamum
made of the site until the Greek period.
See also the entry in the Old Testament Apocrypha/ Influences Out-
side the Bible section of the Appendix.
The early church at Pergamum
cult are referred to in Revelation 1 and 2. No specific light has been
thrown on the first century after Jesus by archaeological exploration. In
Byzantine times, when Pergamum
drew to the citadel and built a new fortification wall with ancient blocks.
PERIZZITE (פרזי, dweller in the open country) A population group encountered
by the Israelites in Palestine
occurrence of other nouns suggests “unwalled villages.” The name, ap-
parently in an ethnic sense, occurs frequently as the designation of one
of a group of people. The name Perizzite occurs 23 times in the Old Tes-
tament, but always in lists without details to assist in an identification of
a specific area. 4 times they are named with the Canaanites. This may be
intended to suggest those living in fortified cities and those living in the
unwalled towns or hamlets; the Rephaim are named together with the Pe-
rizzites. More frequently the Perizzites are summarily named in longer
lists, most commonly with 5 others: Canaanites; Hittites; Amorites; Hivites;
and Jebusites.
PERSECUTION. Suffering inflicted upon an individual or group for fidelity to a
faith. Persecution may be inflicted by official authority, or by unauthorized
activity of hostile individuals or crowds.
It is pre-supposed in New Testament writings that all the prophets of
Christ and the persecution of his followers were seen as the repetition of a
pattern which had been followed over and over again in the nation’s life.
The sufferings of the Hebrews at the hands of the Egyptians and of the Phi-
listines can hardly be regarded as persecutions; it was simply oppression
by foreign masters. For the first real persecution, see the entry in the Old
Testament Apocrypha/ Influences Outside the Bible section of the Appen-
dix. In Hebrew scriptures, the persecution of prophets seems to have
been relatively rare, except in times of moral religious decadence.
P-52
In Ahab’s reign, the introduction of Melkarth’s worship by Ahab’s
Tyrian queen, Jezebel, was followed by persecuting Yahweh’s prophets.
Obadiah tells of saving 100 prophets from Jezebel’s fury by hiding them
in caves. Jeremiah was flung into a dungeon at the princes’ insistence. It
is possible that Manasseh slaughtered prophets for protesting against in-
troduction of Assyrian rites.
The early chapters of Acts tell of attempts by the Great Sanhedrin to
prohibit public preaching by the apostles. The first sustained persecution
arose around the Greek preacher Stephen, who probably voiced more radi-
cal views about the transience of the temple and the law than had the Gali-
lean leaders; he was stoned to death. The ardent young Pharisee Saul
makes his first appearance in Christian history as leader of the stoning par-
ty. The gospel was brought to Samaria
between Jews and Samaritans.
Shortly before the end of his life, Herod Agrippa struck savage blows
at the leaders of the church; he executed James the son of Zebedee, and
put Peter into prison. Peter escaped, by what the church interpreted as di-
vine intervention made in answer to its prayers, but the populace's smol-
dering hostility for the Christians remained. We hear nothing more of the
situation of the Jerusalem
was murdered by a fanatical mob. It would appear that the church in-
curred bitter hatred by its refusal to share in the madness which was soon
to come in the rebellion against Rome
that at some point the decision was made to expel Christians from the
synagogues.
During the 1st generation, the church had constantly to contend
with popular hostility, but seldom with official police measures; the Ro-
man administrators protected Christians. Paul tells us, indeed, that he
was beaten with rods, and that the magistrates were full of apologies the
next morning when they learned he was a Roman citizen. On the other
hand, the proconsul of Achaia refused to take action against him, and at
Roman sanctions.
The Christian church at Rome
command of the Emperor Nero. The populace was persuaded that Nero
had ordered the fire set and had sent his guards to spread it. Nero pro-
cured false confessions from Christians, both to facilitate prosecutions
and to divert the public anger from himself. General detestation of the
Christians provided sufficient excuse for the severest measures against
them. The legal basis of this persecution is not clear. There may have
been a formal decree, but more likely it was a police action without de-
cree. After Nero as before him, the Christians had to fear mainly in-
flamed passions of hostile crowds, fed with false rumors of what went on
in their secret gatherings.
The succession of Flavian emperors began with Vespasian. There
is no solid evidence that Christians suffered persecution under Vespasian
and his two sons. Our first concrete evidence of measures against Chris-
tians for confessing the name, comes from Trajan’s reign (98-117). His
governor of Bithynia Pontus
he has dealt with Christians. His inquiries have shown him that they are
guilty only of illegal association for an unauthorized worship. He never-
theless sentenced them to death. Trajan approves Pliny’s procedure.
Christians aren’t to be sought out, but if a charge is proved, punishment
must be inflicted. It was against the law to be Christian; but in practice
the law was seldom enforced.
north of Shiraz
The extensive building activities which made Persepolis
of splendor and magnificence started shortly after Darius the Great came
to the throne (521-485 B.C.) and were continued by his son Xerxes (485-
-465). The splendor and magnificence of Persepolis
ever crippled by the destruction caused by the victorious Alexander the
Great. In spite of its splendid outlay Persepolis
After the descriptions and drawings of Persepolis' ruins were provi-
ded, beginning in the 1600s A.D., systematic archaeological investigations
didn't start until 1931. Some of the most important structures are: a monu-
mental staircase leading through a gate building; a gigantic terrace laid out
under Darius the Great; the hall of 100 columns; and Xerxes’ harem
building.
See also the entry in the Old Testament Apocrypha/Influences Out-
side the Bible section of the Appendix.
sians” refer to the empires of various duration and territorial expanse from
the Achaemenian until the Pahlavi dynasty which reigned from capitals in
different parts of the Iranian territory. The designation Iran
is used by Western scholars for the area of the present Iran Af-
References, Land, and Language—Persia
frequently mentioned in the Old Testament. Ezra 9, Daniel 8, and Esther 1
mention kings of Persia
Cyrus (II Chronicles 36, Ezra 1, 3, 4, Daniel 10); Darius (Ezra 4, Nehe-
miah 12, Daniel 5); and Arta-xerxes (Ezra 4, 7). Persians are not men-
tioned in the New Testament.
Iran, in the larger sense, is situated between the Caspian Sea and
west Turkistan in the north, the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman in the
south, the lower and middle Indus Basin in the southeast and Mesopota-
mia in the southwest. In the west a mountain range, which extends from
teau's border. The city of Ecbatana Hamadan
point where a route connects Mesopotamia with the plateau. Under the
Achaemenians, its principal city was Persepolis Karun
the sea.
In the northwest, Azerbaijan Kurdistan mountain
range. The two provinces to the south of the Caspian Sea are favored
by a mild and humid climate. In northern Khurasan, today the most
eastern province of Iran
ranges constitutes a natural way of access between the Elburz and Hindu
and ends in a mixture of lagoon-like basins. Iran
cludes parts of Afghanistan Soviet Union ; the places were
once known as Gurgan, Khwarezmia, Sogdiana, and Bactria
3 stages of development have been assumed for the Iranian lan-
guage group. See the entry in the Old Testament Apocrypha/Influences
Outside the Bible section of the Appendix for discussion of Old and Mid-
dle Iranian. The New Iranian, which is dated from 700 A.D. is the
source of the standard language of Persia
History—Iran
Media entry); Achaemenians (550-330 B.C.); Greeks (330-323); Arsacids
or Parthians (250 B.C.-224 A.D.); and Sassanians (224-651). This article
will focus mostly on the Achaemenians. By the middle of the 500s B.C.,
after the downfall of the Assyrian Empire, 2 great powers, Babylonia and
Media, faced each other. A revolt against the Median King Asyages was
started by Cyrus II in 550. The outcome was establishment of the Achae-
menian Empire.
After Achaimenes’ death (529) his son Cambyses II continued his
father’s work and after careful preparation succeeded in the conquest of
slew Smerdis, his brother. There was a man, a Magian, Gaumata by
name, who pretended to be Smerdis, and who gained the support of the
people and reigned for six months. His success may be due to the general
discontent with Cambyses. The Behistun Inscription relates how Darius,
a member of the Achaemenian family, succeeded in securing the throne for
himself and in restoring the Empire. His success was due to Darius’ extra-
ordinary military genius in his use of different armaments, and the expert
handling of his troops.
The many peoples were governed on the basis of a division into
some 29 units, known as satrapies (provinces), although some of the divi-
sions seemed to be based on ethnic groups, rather than place. This sy-
stem left to each of the satrapies a relative amount of autonomy under a
local administrator or satrap.
Darius lists the following provinces and groups: (Provinces) Arabia,
Arachosia, Aria, Armenia, Assyria, Babylonia, Bactria, Cappadocia, Choras-
mia, Drangiana, Egypt, Elam, Gandara, Ionia, Media, Parthia, Sardis, Sat-
tagydia, Sind, Sogdiana; (Ethnic Groups) Sakas (haumavarga), Sakas
(pointed caps), Sakas (across the sea), Ionians (petasos-wearing), Liby-
ans, Ethiopians, Makans, Carians, and Skrudra.
In the majority of cases the satraps came from noble families or the
royal family. In foreign policy they enjoyed large autonomy, especially in
frontier provinces. Rapid and reliable communication was assured by the
royal mail service between Susa
There is little doubt that in theory and in practice the Persians ruled
with absolute authority, although the king was probably not considered di-
vine. In executive, judiciary, military, and possibly also religious matters,
the ultimate decision was the king’s. The “7 counselors” of Ezra 7 or the
“7 princes of Persia
his immediate orders. The על טע (beh ‘ale teh ‘aim, master of decrees),
seems to have held a high, or perhaps the highest position in the Persian
legal courts. At the province's head was the פקיד (paw keed), אזדכריא
(‘ets eh deh keh ree ‘ah), המרכריא (ha ma reh keh ree ‘ah).
P-54
On the matter of law and its administration little or no direct Iranian
evidence is available. Besides “the judges,” “the king’s judges,” or “judges
of the court,” the local commander took an active part in legal procedures.
It seems likely that the provinces' judiciary systems were modeled after that
of the capital. The Persian form of capital punishment for rebellion was
probably “impalement.”
Among the revenues of the state, taxes or tributes levied from all
over the Empire were the most important. Darius set up a uniform tax sys-
tem, standardized the monetary unit, and introduced uniform weights and
measures. He and other Achaemenian rulers took a keen interest in over-
seas foreign commerce, including the digging of a canal from the Nile to
the Red Sea .
Among human activities agriculture and cattle breeding were consi-
dered the most commendable. The Avestan scriptures contain evidence
for a socio-religious division of society into 3 classes: priests; warriors;
farmers; and later artisans. There seems to have existed a political hierar-
chy, ranging from the family to “the land.”
(For the Persian dynasties from 499-1 B.C. see the Persia
the Old Testament Apocrypha/ Influences Outside the Bible section of the
Appendix.)
In the beginning of the 200s A.D. the rule of the Arsacids came to
an end because of Ardavan's defeat at the hands of Ardashir. Within a peri-
od of some 15 years Ardashir succeeded in rebuilding the power of Iran
His son and successor, Shapur I (about 240-270) was in a position to an-
nex part of the Kushan Empire in northwestern India
In the period between Ardashir and the end of the Sassanian Empire
(651), Iran
as well as China India
struggle against Western and Eastern rival powers. On the Eastern front,
the more dangerous one in the long run, the Sassanian rulers had to face
the threat of invasions. The reign of Khosrau I in the beginning of the
600s became Sassanian peak
Religion—The correspondence in both concepts and names of di-
vinities found in the Indian Rig Veda and the Iranian Avesta point to a per-
iod in which the Indo-Iranian tribal community held common religious be-
liefs. It can only be surmised from later evidence that in Iran
nian varieties of these Indo-Iranian beliefs existed. In some of these,
Ahura-mazda had a supreme position. Animal sacrifice and libations
were common practice. Other ancient Persian gods include: Mithra (In-
dian Mitra); Haoma (Indian Soma); Xvarənah; Anahita; Tishtrya; Sirius;
and the Fravashi or spirits of the righteous dead.
See the Religion: Zarathushtra section of the Persia
the Old Testament Apocrypha/ Influences Outside the Bible section of the
Appendix for a discussion of Zoroastrian religion.
The religious situation in Sassanian Iran
ences to which the state was subject. Zoroastrianism was the state reli-
gion, and “Jews, Buddhists, Brahmins, Nazoreans, Christians and Mani-
chaeans” were subject to persecution. Judaism flourished in all of Meso-
exegesis and discerning right and wrong were fostered.
The Indian religions, Buddhism and Hinduism, recruited the majority
of their followers in the eastern parts of the Empire. Christian communities
were founded in Persian territory in the first century A.D. Tolerance alter-
nated with violent persecution, being motivated often by political and mili-
tary considerations. The Persian church received the official blessing of
the secular authorities in 410. In 468 it broke off from the Western Chris-
tian church with the approval of the state. From Iran
spread eastward.
In the Pahlavi books, which may be assigned to the 500s A.D., oppo-
sition between Ormuzd (good) and Ahriman (evil) is fully systematized.
The Aməsa Spənta have become Ormuzd’s created spirits and his willing
servants. Both Ormuzd and Ahriman are pure spirits. Ahriman initiates the
hostilities and is temporarily repelled. Ormuzd fashions creation, which has
become necessary to him for use against Ahriman.
Humans side with Ormuzd by adhering to principles of good
thoughts, words, and deeds. Ahriman attacks again, bringing death, dis-
ease, anger, envy, and other entities into the world. On the 4th day after
individual death the departed’s soul has to face judgment on the Cinvat
bridge. In the end, resurrection is brought about by the Sosyans or
“savior,” which also signifies the final victory of Ormuzd over Ahriman.
P-55
PERSIAN, OLD (OP). Language of ancient Fars in southwest Iran
Avestan, the language of the Zoroastrian scriptures, the Avesta, are the
most ancient representatives attested in writing of the Iranian languages.
The existence of some of the inscriptions had been known to the
Western world since the Greeks. In 1765, Carsten Niebuhr made approx-
imately correct copies of half a dozen inscriptions of Darius and Xerxes.
The deciphering of the cuneiform script and the language was initiated by
G. F. Grotefend in 1802. It opened the way to the understanding of other
languages such as Elamite, Assyrian, and Babylonian. The most impor-
tant inscriptions were found in Berutun. As to their contents, the inscrip-
tions are official state documents that proudly commemorate the high ex-
ploits of the Achaemenian rulers.
PERSIS (PersiV, Persian woman) A Christian woman, greeted and praised
by Paul. The name is often found in papyri and inscriptions, especially in
connection with female slaves (Roman 16).
PERUDA (פרודא, seed) Head of a family of Solomon’s servants who returned
from the Exile (Ezra 2, Neh. 7).
PERVERSE (עוה (‘aw vaw), crooked, to sin; ﬠקש (‘ike kashe), false, deceitful;
diastrefw (dee as treh fo), cause to defect) The translation of a number
of Hebrew and Greek words which generally share the meanings given
above. Most often, it occurs in the wisdom literature and in Deuteronomy.
Our term belongs in the context of the “unrighteous way” of the wisdom
literature. In Deuteronomy, the word takes on the clear distinction of “twis-
ting” the commandments of God into something different or opposite,
through disobedience. The perverse man is the man who behaves in a
manner opposed to the demands of the law of God.
P-56
PESTILENCE (דבר (deh ber), plague; loimoi (loy moy), plague) A general
though quite distinctive designation of scourges of fatal termination sent by
God as a punishment. Moses used pestilence as a threat to Pharaoh; de-
ber refers specifically to murrain (see entry).
The rebellious Israelites were frequently confronted with warnings
concerning pestilence during their wanderings, & a number of unspecified
epidemics actually broke out consequent upon Israelite disobedience. The
dedication prayer of Solomon incorporates a clause for the removal of sun-
dry calamities, including pestilence, when national repentance was evident.
While “pestilence” and “plague” are frequently associated with each other,
in ancient times a distinction is made between them. Typhoid, typhus fe-
ver, smallpox, and bubonic plague are the plagues or diseases. Pesti-
lence is often associated with sieges in the form of cholera and dysentery,
suggesting a contaminated water supply.
PESTLE (עלי (ah lay)) A hand tool used to pound, crush, or rub substances in a
mortar.
PETER (שמעון (sie meh own), hearing, accepting; Simwn, PetroV, stone;
KhfaV (keh fas), rock) The name which Jesus gave to his 12 most pro-
minent apostles.
List of Topics—1. Names, Home and Family; 2. Call
and Role as Disciple and Apostle; 3. Rock and Witness to
the Resurrection; 4. Leadership, Wider Work, and Other
Apostles; 5. Rome Burial Place;
Message, and Contributions
1. Names, Home and Family—The New Testament (NT) uses 4
names to refer to Peter. Least used is the Hebrew name sim’eon. The
Greek name Simon occurs much more often (49 times). Nearly 20 times,
almost all of them in John, the name Simon is used in the double name
Simon Peter.
The other 2 names, Cephas and Peter, are similar in meaning. Ce-
phas occurs in John once, in I Cor. 4 times, and in Gal. 4 times. Petros oc-
curs in Matthew 23 times, in Mark 19 times, in Luke 17 times, in John 34
times, Acts 56 times. These figures are only approximate, but they show
that “Peter” is dominant in NT usage.
The frequency of the name “Simon” in the gospels and Symeon’s
rare use in the NT indicate that the name Simon was used along with
Peter during Jesus’ ministry. Peter was not an Aramaic-speaking Jew
with no contact with the Greek culture in Galilee , but a bilingual Jew
who thereby had some providential preparation for later missionary
preaching.
In Matthew 16, Jesus calls his leading disciple Simon Bar-Jona. In
John 1, he is called Simon, John’s son; Peter was married. Later, in the
apostolic age, Paul states that Cephas took his wife with him on journeys
to various churches. The gospels speak often of Peter’s brother Andrew.
The 2 brothers were partners in a fishing business. According to Mark,
they lived at Capernaum Sea of Galilee .
John 1 says that Beth-saida was the “city of Andrew
Gospel is correct, it must refer to the original family home; during Jesus’
ministry the home of these brothers was in Capernaum
2. Call and Role as Disciple and Apostle—All 4 gospels report
that Peter became a disciple of Jesus in the early days of Jesus’ ministry
(Matthew 4, Mark 1, Luke 5, and John 1). They differ, however, as to
place and circumstances. Whatever the circumstances of the call, it oc-
curred at the Sea of Galilee, included Simon, Andrew, James, and John,
and evoked a sense of personal power in Jesus. John’s Gospel dates
Peter’s first contact with Jesus earlier, and places it in Judea near where
John the Baptist was ministering to the people.
In this account the initial call occurred in the southern Jordan
tion of Jesus, ascribed in the Synoptic gospels to Peter occurred on the
first day of Jesus’ contact and was made by Andrew, before Peter had
even seen Jesus. This early connection of Peter and Andrew with John
the Baptist is entirely possible, but the dramatic method of John’s gospel
has apparently led it to place the Messianic identification much too early
in the story. The actual call to accompany Jesus as full-time disciples
may therefore be dated at the beginning of the Galilean ministry of Jesus.
From the day of the call by the Sea of Galilee , Peter was a full-
time disciple. To live as a disciple implied personal association with the
Teacher. A mission, a commission to carry forward Jesus’ work, was his
purpose in calling Peter to discipleship. Some such mission was in his
mind from the start. When the 12 were chosen, and the plan to send
them to the Galilean cities was formed, these men began to be called
apostles. The title was appropriate as soon as a mission was planned;
there is no sound reason for denying that Jesus designated these men as
his apostles. The evidence indicates the 12 were called apostles from the
time that Jesus sent them out on a Galilean preaching & healing mission;
among the 12, Peter was named first.
The practice of mentioning Peter first was not due simply to his
early call or to his prominence in the apostolic age. At times he acted as
a vigorous individual quick to take the initiative. Usually, however,
Peter acted or spoke for the group of disciples, and was recognized as the
outstanding one of the group. When Jesus announced his impending suf-
fering and Peter rebuked him, Jesus’ stern rebuke of Peter was not inten-
ded for Peter alone, for Jesus’ act in looking at the disciples while rebu-
king Peter shows that he recognized in Peter’s words an expression of the
mind of the group.
P-57
The prominent role of Peter is reflected where Peter is singled out
and the other disciples are mentioned as a group associated with him. In
back of these statements is the common knowledge that when the disci-
ples spoke or acted, Peter was normally their spokesman and took the
lead. When an inner circle of the 12 is mentioned, Peter James, and John
are the most frequent names.
Peter's prominence appears in other ways, Jesus went to Peter’s
house in Capernaum
from which to teach. Peter’s denial of Jesus had its pathos precisely in
the fact that Peter was the outstanding disciple who, above all others,
should have held fast and encouraged the others. But he proved of cru-
cial importance as the first witness to the resurrection of Jesus.
Peter’s role in John’s gospel is different. It was Andrew who first
met Jesus and then brought Peter to Jesus. It was Andrew who first dis-
cerned that Jesus was the Messiah. This gospel reports no act or word
of Peter except the confession in John 6. The “Beloved Disciple” had
the highest-ranking position, “close to Jesus’ breast.” Peter is prominent
in John’s gospel, but he does not hold the unrivaled position among the
disciples.
3. Rock and Witness to the Resurrection—Peter’s original names
were Symeon and Simon, and it appears that during Jesus’ ministry he
was commonly called Simon. Jesus gave him the Aramaic name of Ce-
phas; its translation was Peter. In Mark 3 and Luke 6 the new name is said
to have been given when Jesus chose the 12. Matthew 16 puts the na-
ming at the time when Simon declared that Jesus was the Messiah. The
name Cephas or Peter soon superseded Simon, perhaps in part because
it was a distinctive name and not so commonly used as Simon. While the
name actually given to Simon by Jesus was Cephas, it was natural for this
to be expressed in Greek translation as Peter.
The gospels do not say why Jesus gave Simon the new name of
“Rock.” It was not a description of his character, for he was volatile and
impulsive. Certainly it indicates that he now has a new role and is respon-
sible for giving strength and steadiness to the disciples. Matthew 16’s “on
this rock I will build my church” is questioned, because Jesus throughout
his ministry showed no interest in organizing churches.
If we are to understand the verses of chapter 16, we must put aside
preconceptions. 1st, we mustn't assume that the word “church” meant to
Jesus what it means today. He was speaking of the group which centered
in him and which was the true center of the people of God. 2nd, we must
put aside all thought of successors to Peter. The passage makes no men-
tion of such. 3rd, we must avoid the idea of external, automatic, and ex-
clusive authority. Jesus gives to the entire group of disciples authority
like that which he gives to Peter. There are unexpressed spiritual condi-
tions, so the promise of authority to Peter or to the entire group of disci-
ples does not mean that unworthy human leadership or judgments will be
sanctioned by God.
4th, we mustn't assume that these verses necessarily belong in the
context where we now find them. The exact situation in which a saying
was spoken by Jesus was often unknown. Matthew 16 may preserve
genuine words of Jesus which are not now within their original setting.
With our preconceptions set aside, we can still say that Jesus spoke the
words quoted in Matthew 16. It fits Jesus’ outlook to say that Peter’s
understanding of Jesus’ role in God’s work was God-given, and the refe-
rence to Peter as a rock seems very Jewish.
In the beginnings of the church Peter was to be the key figure; all its
later stages would build upon his pioneer witness and leadership. In his
crucial pioneer work Peter would have authority; he couldn't use it selfishly
or capriciously; he had to act in Christ’s spirit and serve Christ’s purpose.
The church was to live in unity & with order adapted to the living situation.
When later ideas foreign to the mind of Jesus are kept out of the
picture, it is clear that Jesus did give to Peter the place of outstanding lea-
dership. It is a fact of history that Peter was the Rock; he followed Jesus’
instruction to “strengthen [his] brethren”; he was the key leader of the earli-
est years of the church. The later sharing of prominence with James the
brother of the Lord and with Paul bars the way to unjustified ideas of hier-
archy and apostolic succession.
The usual Christian view emphasizes Peter’s confession of Jesus
as Messiah as his unique and basic contribution. Peter was not ready to
lead the church or to give its basic witness until he could witness to the re-
surrection of Christ. It was at this turning point that the leading role of
Peter is most clear. The central work of an apostle of Christ was to be a
“witness to his resurrection.” And in the earliest written report of the re-
surrection appearances, that of Paul in I Corinthian 15, the first appearance
is “to Cephas.” Once Cephas-Peter had done this, he was then ready to
do what Jesus had instructed him to do.
P-58
4. Leadership, Wider Work, and Other Apostles—During the pe-
riod of approximately 15 years which is covered by the first 12 chapters
of Acts, Peter was the dominant leader of the church. Undoubtedly, the
other apostles were faithful, but 9 of them Acts never mentions as active
individual leaders. During the period of Peter’s stay in Jerusalem
did not hold first rank there; Peter dominated. By Acts 12 James, the
Lord's brother, associated with the church from its earliest days, had risen
to a place of leadership.
On Pentecost and in the temple's outer court, Peter seized the op-
portunity to preach to the assembled pilgrims and other Jews, respective-
ly. Peter was undoubtedly active in the healing and preaching which led
to the arrest of all the apostles, and in the ensuing rebuke before the San-
hedrin he voiced the apostles’ determination to “obey God rather than
men.”
Up to this time the story centered in Jerusalem
of the 7 indicates the rise of the Greek group in the Jerusalem
The martyrdom of Stephen as one of the Seven led to the scattering of
the Greek-loving Jewish group; the 12 were not driven from Jerusalem
Peter went not only to the Greek-speaking Christians and Jews but also
to any Aramaic-speaking Christians and Jewsthat he found.
At Caesarea , Peter was led, somewhat against his inclination, to
speak to uncircumcised Gentiles. He admitted them to baptism, without
requiring them first to be circumcised as proselytes. This no doubt en-
raged Jewish leaders so that Herod Agrippa I could see that Peter’s arrest
would please them. When Peter was released from prison, he indicated
that James the brother of the Lord should now lead the Jerusalem
This marked the end of Peter’s dominant leadership in and near Jerusalem
The later career of Peter cannot be traced in detail. He “went to
another place” (i.e. he left Jerusalem
He may have gone to Antioch Syria Asia Minor .
The latter is not probable by the time of Acts 12. He may have gone to
may indicate that Peter had visited and won adherents to his point of view.
Some thought that he went to Rome
he went to Rome
To estimate correctly the role of Peter in the primitive church, we
must study carefully his relation with other apostolic leaders of that peri-
od. During his dominant leadership at Jerusalem
surpassed that of James and John the sons of Zebedee. Stephen was an
outstanding leader, but he was not the equal of Peter. The Jerusalem
church wasn't split into two separate denominations, even though there
were two groups which had a partially separate life because of language
differences.
James the brother of the Lord gradually became the dominant lea-
der of the Jerusalem
travel about Palestine
der during his absence. In Acts 15, at the apostolic conference, James
apparently presided, and he formulated the decision which the confe-
rence approved. Paul confirms this dominant position of James. It was
such that, even outside Palestine
to resist it.
Paul’s relation to Peter combined respect with independence. He
did not place himself under Peter, but continued to work independently.
Paul won approval of his essential gospel to the Gentiles, and his future
work was not subjected to the control of Peter. Also, Paul states as a fact
not open to dispute that Peter was an apostle to Jews as Paul was to Gen-
tiles. As Peter’s equal, Paulfelt justified in condemning Peter for inconsi-
stency in first eating with Gentiles and then refusing to do so.
definitely Peter’s relation to the church at Rome
Peter’s visit there. Neither Acts nor Paul mentions Peter in connection
with Rome
in Rome Rome
NT hint of a Rome
Somewhat stronger evidence comes from the apocryphal I Cle-
ment, where it is said of Peter that he “suffered not one or two but many
trials.” The context of this vague sentence refers to Peter’s martyr death
and places it at Rome. This suggests that both apostles had been at
tion begins only toward the end of the 100s A.D.
The bishop of Corinth
fer to Peter and Paul together in ministry and martyrdom. From this time
on, the tradition is definite. The witnesses at the end of the 100s and be-
ginning of the 200s are strong. The conclusions indicated are: Peter didn't
found the church at Rome or live long in that city; he wasn't there when
Paul wrote to the Romans or when Paul reached Rome; and he probably
suffered martyrdom in Rome, as did Paul, but it is much less certain that
the two died at the same time.
P-59
For centuries scholars and churchmen have debated the location of
Peter’s grave. It has received renewed attention in recent years because
of explorations under the Church of St. Peter Vatican
Hill was connected with Peter’s death or burial or a memorial to recall
and honor his martyrdom. On this site the Emperor Constantine built a
church to commemorate Peter's martyrdom or burial of . In 1939, an early
pagan cemetery and other important data were found, including the ruins
of a memorial monument. This may be the actual burial place of Peter.
There is also a tradition that Peter was buried on the Appian Way .
However, what Gaius of Rome believed to be true at the end of the
100s isn't decisive proof of what actually happened more than 100 years
before. The evidence for Peter’s martyrdom in Rome
than that for his place of burial. The evidence establishes the probability;
but it certainly does not provide conclusive proof that this is where Peter is
buried.
6. Writings, Message, and Contributions—Three NT writings
have been connected with Peter. Mark’s Gospel was indebted to the prea-
ching of Peter, but no one claims that Peter wrote this gospel. The ope-
ning verse of I Peter ascribes the writing of this letter to Peter. It is general-
ly agreed that Peter didn't write II Peter. A number of apocryphal works
are ascribed to Peter: Peter, Apocalypse of; Peter, Gospel of; & Peter,
Preaching of (See entries as listed above in the NT Apocrypha and Bible
Versions section of the Appendix.). The Acts of Peter are not attributed to
Peter, nor can they be used for writing the life of Peter.
It is hard to determine clearly the distinctive message of Peter. What
Peter and other eyewitnesses had told was preserved, used, and shaped
for use in worship by the early church. Nevertheless, the resurrection
hope, the redemption through Christ, the new life in Christ, the church as
the people of God, faithfulness under persecution, and steadfast loyalty to
God are themes of I Peter which accord with Peter’s mind and work.
Points which stand out are: the leading role of Peter in the resurrection wit-
ness; his loyalty to his ancestral faith; his recognition of Paul’s gospel as a
valid presentation of the work of Christ; and his willingness to break down
narrow Jewish lines and eat with Gentiles. Paul obviously thought that
Peter was in basic agreement with his universal gospel.
Perhaps our best source for understanding Peter’s message is found
in Peter’s speeches found in Acts. It is more likely that Luke used early re-
ports of the apostolic leaders’ preaching and presented its substance in his
own style. Hence, Acts 1, 2, 4, 5, and 10 give us, not the exact words of
Peter’s preaching, but its essential substance. Part of the power of Peter
was that he preached the basic, common faith of the early church.
Included in this message which Peter preached were:
- the importance of the resurrection of Jesus
- loyalty to the Old Testament;
- fulfillment of God’s plan and Israel’s history in Christ;
- God's control of history;
- Jesus as every Prophet, Messiah, Lord, Suffering Servant, and Judge of all;
- the necessity of repentance and faith;
- the promise of the Holy Spirit to believers and the baptized;
- the outreach of the gospel to “every one whom the Lord our God calls”;
- the necessity to obey God rather than human authority.
Peter’s significance is often obscured by disputes over his connec-
tion with the papacy. The NT does nothing to link him with a chain of
authoritative successors, and the earliest ancient traditions do not support
such claims. Protestants shouldn't belittle Peter’s contribution because of
exaggerated claims made for a church hierarchy based on Peter.
The 12 were responsive followers of Jesus and made advances
during the ministry of Jesus largely because Peter was their active and
vocal representative. He was the outstanding member of the group. His
initial, basic confession of Jesus as the Christ gave the 12 a clear basis of
loyalty. To Peter, Jesus committed the task of rallying and leading the
disciples. He was the key witness to the resurrection.
Then, in a way less striking and less far-reaching than Paul, he be-
came a missionary evangelist and led the preaching of the gospel among
the Jews of Palestine, Syria, and more distant regions. While not a great
theologian, he took a constructive part in understanding and interpreting
the work of Christ and its grace. Peter remains a moving example of how
a warmhearted, impulsive, gifted person can be won by love, deepened
by training, disciplined by hardship, and used by God to be an outstan-
ding instrument of God’s purpose.
P-60
PETER, 1ST (I PETER) AND 2ND (II PETER) LETTERS OF. One of the so-
called Catholic Letters in the New Testament (NT); written by, or in the
name of, Peter the apostle to Christians of Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia,
Asia, and Bithynia; the author calls it an “exhortation” and “declaration”
of the true grace of God. In it dogma, ethics, Christian faith, and beha-
vior are woven into a unified whole.
List of Topics—1. I Peter: Content and Character;
2. I Peter: Mention and Readers of Letter; 3. I Peter: Date
and Authorship; 4. I Peter: Origin and Theology;
5. II Peter: Introduction; 6. II Peter: Authorship, Style,
and Canonicity; 7. II Peter: Purpose and Date;
8. II Peter: Outline and Contents
1. I Peter: Content and Character—It is impossible in this letter to
1. I Peter: Content and Character—It is impossible in this letter to
distinguish between doctrinal and ethical sections. The salutation of the
first 2 verses, containing the names of the sender and of the recipients, is
in form like the salutations in Paul’s letters. There follows God's benedic-
tion for the blessedness given to the Christians in the present time. Their
eternal salvation is a certainty through the resurrection of Christ. By love
they are bound to Jesus Christ, whom they have not seen, but in whom
they believe. The prophets of the Old Testament (OT) foretold the suffe-
rings of Christ and his subsequent glory.
The writer next points out that this gospel is the Word abiding for-
ever. It has completely changed the lives of his readers, bringing the new
birth of eternal life. For them, the New Covenant people, Christ has be-
come the cornerstone, laid down by God, a sure foundation for the belie-
vers; they have become a holy nation, to which, the epithets of the Lord’s
people in the OT can be applied. In the last half of chapter 2 through the
first part of 3, we have an ethical passage whose sanity appears in the
thrice-repeated theme of submission.
The 1st submission paragraph is concerned with subjection under
the civil authorities. The 2nd paragraph is directed to house slaves, who
are directed to give perfect service to their masters. The 3rd paragraph
deals with Christian women, married to unbelieving husbands; whom they
are to try to win for Christ. Christian men are to look upon their wives as
“joint heirs of the grace of life.”
In the rest of the 3rd and the first part of the 4th, the readers are re-
minded that according to God's word, the way to attain life eternal is to ab-
stain from all unrighteousness. They should have a clear conscience, and
be able to defend their convictions and to bless their opponents. In all this
they must follow the righteous Christ's example, he who died for the un-
righteous and brought salvation. Christ’s followers should no longer
serve earthly passions. For the disobedient, the judgment is is at hand.
The life in this world stands in the light of coming final judgment.
It may be that they will experience tribulations. These are the re-
fining fire, a test to Christians. The final judgment will mean narrow es-
cape even for the righteous; sinners will disappear. There is an exhorta-
tion to the elders to be good shepherds in order that they may receive the
crown of glory, and to the younger members of the congregation to submit
to the elders. The letter closes with the name of the writer’s assistant, a
brief summary, greetings, and a final blessing.
This writing’s outward appearance is that of an ordinary ancient let-
ter, but one meant for public circulation. This letter doesn't enter into ques-
tions raised by a particular community, as Paul’s Corinthian letters do. It is
more like an address. It isn't a theological or ethical treatise, but is direc-
ted to a special group of persons & deals with a very specific situation. The
instructions given to certain groups may form part of a current catechetical
pattern. The letter was conceived with particular persons living in a parti-
cular situation.
A German scholar’s main point was that there is a clear break be-
tween 4:11 and 4:12 , and that there is a certain amount of repetition before
and after the break. The 1st part up to 4:11 , except for the first 2 verses
of the letter, is a homily to newly baptized persons. The 2nd part begins
with the first 2 verses, and continues with 4:12 through the letter's last half;
it is a letter to comfort Christians in time of persecution. But the division
of the letter into 2 parts is unnecessary. Repetition belongs to the writer's
style. There is, then, no reason to take this letter as other than an ordinary
letter written to newly converted Christians in certain parts of the ancient
world.
2. I Peter: Mention and Readers of Letter—Among the so-called
Apostolic Fathers there is no unequivocal testimony about this letter. Simi-
larities can easily be accounted for as derived from common Christian tea-
ching. Eusebius reports that the elders made frequent use of I Peter, as a
work beyond dispute, in their own treatises.
Polycarp was clearly quoting this letter. Polycarp, however, doesn't
mention the name of his source, nor does he even give these as quota-
tions; they are simply incorporated in the sentences; Polycarp does the
same with Paul’s words. The date of Polycarp’s letter is still in doubt, but
one is allowed to say that around 125 A.D. I Peter was well known. Other
traces may be found in the writings of Gnostics. Irenaeus in his Against
Heresies remarks explicitly: “Peter says in his epistle”; Tertulian and Cle-
ment also cite Peter.
From this survey it appears that by 200 this letter was accepted as
the work of the apostle Peter. Marcion rejected I Peter because of his dis-
trust of Peter the Jew. The letter is also not found in the Muratorian Canon.
The great scholar Origen wrote that: “Peter . . . has left one acknowledged
epistle, and, it may be, a 2nd also; for it is doubted.” Thus, I Peter has
good credentials. By its author’s name it is first quoted around 170 A.D.
It makes its first appearance, as far as we can see, in Asia Minor .
P-61
According to the address, the letter is sent to the “exiles [or sojour-
ners] of the dispersion in Pontus Galatia Cappadocia , Asia , and Bithynia
Clearly, the readers lived in certain well-defined parts of Asia Minor. The
word dispersion is well known from Jewish history. Most commentators
suppose that this was one of the many Jewish words taken over by early
Christians. The only problem is that “dispersion” is never used for the
Christian church in early Christian literature. It isn't very feasible to sug-
gest that it was borrowed from the OT, where it is used in a much different
way. This word “dispersion” has long been a main arguments for the opi-
nion that the readers had been Jews by birth. Another argument is the
OT’s extensive use.
This opinion has been abandoned in the 20th century; now it is be-
lieved that the people addressed had come into the church from paga-
nism. These former pagans have given up their previous way of life and
turned to the “living God.” This conversion came about by the preaching
of the word of God, announced by the OT prophets; they were “no people,
but now [they] are God’s people.” They belong to a worldwide brother-
hood which is bound together by mutual love. This religious change meant
a break with their own past; therefore they have become “aliens” in this
world. A deep tone of joy rings through this whole letter from beginning to
end. Surrounded by suspicion, their lives must be a witness of their
religion.
3. I Peter: Date and Authorship—With other NT writings I Peter
shares the lack of a direct indication about its date. The address men-
tions Jesus Christ's apostle Peter as author. If this is correct, the date
must be before 64 or 67. But this name is considered fictitious by many
scholars, because the situation explained here takes place after 64, is
clearly very unpleasant, and is shared by all Christians. Slander and re-
viling is involved, and readers are admonished not to “return evil for evil
or reviling for reviling,” and “if one suffers as a Christian let him not be
ashamed.”
Since it seems in 4:16 that to bear the name of Christian is itself a
crime, it has often been thought that official persecutions by the state au-
thorities were threatening the Christians at the time of I Peter. Based on
this, 3 possible dates offer themselves: the writer was Peter, writing
under Nero’s persecution in 64; someone else wrote during Domitian’s
reign (95); or under Trajan (110).
Actually, no state persecution in any period is reflected in the letter,
because all state persecutions before the 200s A.D. were more or less
local, and because in chapter 2, a very positive relation with the state au-
thorities is implied. The sufferings are caused by evil feelings and hatred
against people who don't follow the general line. The Christian’s difficult
situation had more the character of an unofficial pogrom. Regardless of
the source, it was certainly a fierce trial of faith. The situation reflected in
the letter could have happened any time in the 1st 100 years after Christ,
or the 100s A.D., wherever a Christian group was found.
The letter’s 1st verse explicitly mentions “Peter, an apostle of Jesus
Christ.” Unfortunately, his whereabouts after the Jerusalem Council and
the meeting with Paul in Antioch
in his wife’s company, but where and how is hidden. The period about
which we know nothing spans 15 years. The group or individuals to
whom the letter was sent and the reason for the letter is also unknown.
It is completely obscure why this writing was sent to certain remote
areas which did not play an important part in first century Christianity. In
gelist. Papias declares that Mark functioned as the “interpreter of Peter,”
since Peter as a Galilean fisherman who would not have been well versed
in Greek. All these have long been sufficient reasons accepting the truth
of the salutation and for considering Peter as the author.
However, many NT scholars discovered great difficulties in the tra-
ditional view and therefore considered the letter to be written by someone
using Peter’s name. Some question the mention of Silvanus, a prophet
and Paul’s companion; they believe that Silvanus was with Paul and so
couldn’t have been with Peter. But we know too little about the history of
the church in NT times to make such a judgment. The view that the early
church was divided as between “parties” of Peter and Paul has been large-
ly discredited.
Some scholars object to there being no reference to Jesus’ words
and deeds except for his death and resurrection. The 1st answer to this
argument may be that the letter is much more concerned with the Cross
and Resurrection. It is the crucified and risen Lord, rather than the Gali-
lean teacher, who is the prime importance. Someone writing in Peter’s
name in the 100s would have been more likely to have quoted gospel
sayings of Jesus, since the gospels were then already in existence.
P-62
The 2nd argument is that if the writer were the Jew Peter, he would
have stressed obedience to the Mosaic law. Since he doesn't, I Peter is
often ascribed to a follower of Paul. In fact there are many points of con-
tact and agreement in I Peter with Paul’s Ephesians. Many scholars would
hold that the relation isn't sufficiently close to prove dependence. The com-
mon elements can be explained by the “common ground” of the gospel and
in the situation of the readers of the 2 letters.
A 3rd argument is the relative excellence of the Greek; Semitic phra-
ses are absent. It is incredible that the Galilean fisherman had enough
command of the Greek language to produce a document like this. The
verse “By Silvanus, a faithful brother as I regard him, I have written” pro-
vides an explanation by making it clear that the author used the services of
Silvanus. The statement is perfectly intelligible if it was meant to prevent
suspicions on the part of the readers of a letter in such perfect Greek from
the “barbarian” Peter.
4th and finally, it is argued that the writer’s habit of quoting the OT
in ways which point to his using the Primary Greek OT rather than the He-
brew text is peculiar for a Jew. But textual criticism of the OT shows that
the Masoretic text was only one Hebrew text among many. And if Silvanus
really did write the letter as was suggested earlier, his Bible would naturally
have been the Primary Greek OT.
None of these arguments by itself, nor all of them taken together,
amount to proof against Peter's authorship. But it must be said that no
proof in favor of it can be derived from a comparison between this letter
and the speeches of Peter in Acts. On the whole, it must be said that the
view which takes Peter as the author but sees him as using the services of
Silvanus offers the most satisfactory explanation of the data of the letter.
The phrase “Your sister church in Babylon
origin of the letter. Practically all commentators regard the word as a so-
briquet for Rome
tion between Peter and Babylon
Peter’s travels makes it impossible to exclude Babylon
I Peter was written.
4. I Peter: Origin and Theology—It has been shown that I Peter's
readers were Gentiles who had been converted from pagans to full mem-
bers of the people of God. This result was brought about by the death of
Christ, who died “that he might bring us to God.” Careful reading of this
letter reveals that this case of proselyte terminology does not stand alone;
parallels with expressions used by Philo, Josephus, and the rabbis with re-
gard to proselytes can be detected. It was part of proselyte instruction that
suffering was the lot of the chosen people. Proselyte terminology is also
found in chapter one, where apparently reference is being made to the sa-
crifice connected with a conversion.
Perhaps the “sojourners of the dispersion” were the so-called “God-
fearers” like Cornelius, pagans who lived on the synagogue’s fringe, but
could not become full members unless they were baptized, circumcised,
and an offering was made for them. The readers must already have had
OT instruction, since it is so freely used and plainly had authority. They
are assured by the writer that Christ’s sacrifice is absolutely satisfying;
everything has been done “to bring them to God.” But this membership is
beset with dangers; therefore, he admonishes them to “As slaves of God,
live as free people, yet do not use your freedom as a pretext for evil.”
If the proposed exegesis containing the proselyte offering is sound,
the letter was written before 70 A.D. His word as the Jewish church’s
spokesman would carry great weight with these pagans who had been
nourished in Judaism. Because this letter is addressed to a special class
of individuals, Peter can speak to people living in Paul’s missionary area.
When the missionary situation of the middle of the first century A.D. is
taken into account, this letter fits perfectly well into it. It was written by
Peter, probably around 60 A.D.
The comparison of I Peter with Paul’s letters brings to light an im-
portant fact. They are not mere copies or repetitions, but reflect the pri-
mitive church message and discipline. The “grace” into which they have
come by their conversion rests upon God’s election, mercy, and calling.
It had been announced by the prophets of the OT, by Jesus’ work, and
preached in the gospel. This is the great turning point, the decisive step
in God’s salvation of the world. The time of the writer and his readers is
the end of times. This implies the final judgment by Him who judges
without respect of persons. All this makes the teaching and preaching all
the more earnest. Time is hastening to its end; the sufferings which befall
the Christians will not last long.
P-63
The teaching’s foundation is Jesus’ death and glorification as the
risen Lord. By his resurrection and entrance into God’s glory his follo-
wers are assured that they, sharing in his sufferings, will also share in
his glory. The saving power of Jesus’ work is preached in the world as
the good news. The readers have become “obedient children”; they
believe in Jesus and will become new men and women, “regenerated”
by Christ’s resurrection.
The author emphasizes 2 main themes: steadfastness in suffering;
and good behavior and works. “Rejoice in so far as you share Christ’s
sufferings, that you may also rejoice and be glad when his glory is re-
vealed”; they may be sure of the coming blessing. The 2nd theme of
good behavior and works aren't those of Judaism, but are right attitudes
toward all one’s fellow humans. The Christians, redeemed by Jesus
Christ, may live as free men, but this freedom isn't license, but holiness.
Notwithstanding good works they may be subject to reviling, yet
they will have a good conscience and can make a defense about the hope
that is in them. They glorify God, because their sufferings and their ser-
vice are for Christ’s sake. They are a holy priesthood which offers spi-
ritual sacrifices. This offering is prayer and the complete daily service of
their lives. Set apart to be God’s own people in the highest sense, “so-
journers of the dispersion” live in this world expecting the glorious reve-
lation of the fullness of God’s kingdom.
As an element in Christology, this letter has the remarkable teaching
of Christ’s descent into Hades, which is testimony to the all-embracing po-
wer of Christ, who now reigns over all powers. The letter combines in a
marvelous way faith and works; it is an exposition of dogmatic truth with
attention to its direct impact upon ordinary life. The burning gratitude for
all God gave in Jesus Christ will exhibit itself, according to this writer, in
a lofty way of life—life to the glory of God.
5. II PETER: Introduction—This letter is said to have been writ-
ten by the apostle Peter to the church in order to combat doubts growing
out of the 2nd Coming’s delay; its canonicity was long in doubt. It is an im-
portant work, on both theological and historical grounds. The theological
importance rests on the fact that it raises the issues of the “apostolic” au-
thority and unity of the New Testament (NT) canon, and it has provided the
church with a way to deal with the Second Coming’s delay. The letter is im-
portant for historical reasons, because it gives a picture of the transition pe-
riod from the primitive church to the early Catholic church.
6. II PETER: Authorship, Style, and Canonicity—It is clear that
although the author wants it to seem like he is writing a letter, it doesn't
seem like one. Its destination can't be pinned down and it is addressed to
the church at large. Although it doesn't seem like a letter, Peter’s author-
ship of it is stressed a lot. The apostles' prince is the authoritative voice
which speaks to the church in this his 2nd letter. He can write with autho-
rity, since he has been a witness of Christ’s glorification on the “holy moun-
tain.” Paul is called his “beloved brother.” The author has adopted the
name of the foremost apostle, Peter, to enhance his letters’ authority.
Both internal and external evidence show the impossibility of ascri-
bing the letter to Peter, the disciple and apostle. The author addresses
Greek-Christian churches, which must have been established for some
time. Peter’s martyrdom was in Rome
tion described in II Peter prevailed only long after that event. In chapter
3, the author refers to II Peter as his 2nd letter, but no theory can explain
the differences in style and thought between I and II Peter.
The author presupposes the collection of Paul’s letters and their
Gnostic interpretation. All of the Letter of Jude is virtually incorporated in
II Peter 2. The author mixes up Jude’s imagery, improves upon Jude’s
chronology and overcomes the judgment theme in Jude by emphasizing
the faithful ones’ rescue. Finally, in II Peter 3, he forgets his assumed sta-
tus as Peter, and refers to “your apostles.” With regard to style and lan-
guage, it has been said that “II Peter is perhaps the only NT book whose
language profits from being translated. It seems clear that an author of the
100s is at work here, rather than a Palestinian of the 1st generation.
The first explicit reference to II Peter occurs in Origen (217-251).
Before Origen, the letter hasn't left any sure traces. Clement of Alexandria
doesn't refer to it in his writings that survived to the present. The implicit
references in the Apostolic Fathers' writings aren't enough to establish an
acquaintance with II Peter. After Origen, it is mentioned by several Church
Fathers, including Jerome; from the 300s onward, it is accepted as canoni-
cal. II Peter's canonical history is the weakest of all the NT books.
7. II PETER: Purpose and Date—The letter's purpose is clearly
expressed in chapter 3: “Where is the promise of his coming? For since
the fathers fell asleep, all things have continued as they were from the
beginning.”
To combat this skepticism and to defend the Second Coming is the
sole intent of the author. The theological and historical importance of this
letter then can be assessed only if we see it in the context of the situation
out of which it arose. The difficulty in understanding the letter against its
background lies in the historical obscurity of this period. Several signifi-
cant features can be ascertained which would point to a definite stage for
the letter in the 100s A.D.
P-64
1st, the style and language of the letter shows an connection to the
Greco-Roman culture. A doctrine of immortality is mixed with traditional
Jewish apocalyptic language. 2nd, the author’s orthodoxy points to the
post-apostolic era in which the church began to form criteria of authenti-
city and legitimacy. The proclamation is hardened into sacred history; its
truth is measured by how closely it can be linked to an apostle.
3rd, the Christians’ first generation has died; heretics are in abun-
dance. The situation at heresy’s peak closely resembles the situation in
Jude. The successful rejection of heretics is described in I John. Finally,
the Gnostics are most likely closely linked to the movement’s Marcionite
wing. Gnostic spiritual freedom is interpreted by the Church as ethical
licentiousness and their teachers as greedy men. Their contempt for Judg-
` ment Day and for an earthly realization of the kingdom also drew criti-
cism from II Peter’s author.
8. II PETER: Outline and Contents—The outline is as follows:
I. Greeting (first two verses)
II. Preface: God’s promises are great and wonderful, but
require a virtuous life (next 9 verses)
III. The promise stands sure (last ten verses of chapter 1)
A. On the basis of the apostolic eyewitness to the
glorification of Jesus on the Mountain
B. On the basis of Old Testament (OT) prophecy
IV. Those who attack the promise are doomed, chapter 2.
V. Peter’s “apocalypse”: refutation of the promise’s deniers
and doubters (chapter 3: 1-13)
VI. Final exhortations (last 5 verses)
The greeting suggests an emphasis on the apostolic authority of the
letter and the true knowledge of Christ over against the Gnostics who con-
fuse the church. The true knowledge of Christ has been communicated to
the apostles. The expectation of new heavens and a new earth clothed
with righteousness, can't be easily harmonized with the dualistic Greek
antithesis of “divine nature.”
The condition for participation in this divine world is a gnosis
which is communicated through apostolic authority and exhibits itself in
outward ethical behavior. It would seem that in the face of the protracted
delay of the Second Coming and the mocking attacks by the opponents,
“Peter” emphasizes self-discipline and perseverance. The unity of the
church is threatened and torn apart by opponents from within and without.
What the next 9 verses are reminiscent of is the NT overall expec-
tations for Christian life between the resurrection and Christ’s return.
God’s redemptive act in Christ is complemented by the Christian’s ethical
action. The relationship of God’s act and ethical action is misunderstood
because of the absence of the Holy Spirit’s power in II Peter, and approxi-
mates a new legalism, which indicates a Judaic influence.
The promise stands secure in this chapter's last 10 verses; there can
be no doubt about it. The author makes it abundantly clear that the
apostle Peter was aware of impending heresies and that he has left his let-
ter as a testament to the church. The security of orthodox teaching rests
both on the witness of scripture and upon apostolic witness. It may be
that the author is acquainted with the Pauline letters and the gospels. It is
more probable that the author has recourse to an oral tradition.
The authority of the 12 and Peter’s authority as the foreman rests in
their presence at Christ’s transfiguration. The scene’s importance for the
author is twofold: the transfiguration of Christ is the earthly anticipation
of his heavenly glory. The Transfiguration is an earthly, historical fact, and
the author has been a witness to this fact. Just as the voice on the Moun-
tain carried divine authority, so the voice of the witnesses must be heard
with equal deference. And just as the OT promises are confirmed by the
transfiguration, so too the promises given there, passed on to us by apo-
stolic authority, will be fulfilled in the kingdom’s final glory.
The attack against a self-centered and speculative interpretation of
the OT forms the introduction to a vehement defamation of the Gnostics
in chapter 2 by using the Letter of Jude. This section is characteristic of
the language used in the 100s, in which the opponents are especially
blamed for sexual offenses and greed; abuse replaces debate.
In chapter 3 the author’s real purpose becomes plain. The ground-
work has been laid for his explanation of the Christian Judgment Day.
Just as the earth has once perished by water, so it will in the future be
burned up by fire. God’s sense of time is not ours. Furthermore, God
doesn't foreshorten the time of the end, but lengthens it, out of God’s mercy
to give everyone time to repent. Finally, the author switches back to the
early Christian expectation of the end's suddenness. Notwithstanding false
interpretation by Gnostics misusing Paul, Peter and Paul guarantee the au-
thenticity and legitimacy of this apostolic tradition.
P-65
PETHAHIAH (פתחיה, whom the Lord liberates) 1. Ancestor, supposedly of
David’s time, of one of the post-exilic priestly families. 2. A post-exilic
Judahite, son of Meshezabel, adviser to Zerubbabel in matters “concer-
ning the people.” (Nehemiah 11). 3. A Levite in Ezra’s time who atten-
ded the covenant ceremony at the Feast of Tabernacles (Nehemiah 9) and
who was required by Ezra to put away his foreign wife.
PETHOR (פתור, interpretation) An ancient city located in Upper Mesopotamia
on the Sajur River near its confluence with the Euphrates, given in the
Bible as Balaam’s home, who was called upon to curse the Israelites.
PETHUEL (פתואל, enlarged of God) The father of the prophet Joel (Joel 1).
PETRA (Petra, rock) The famous capital of the Nabateans, situated in a valley
of the mountains of western Edom, about 96 km north of Aqabah, on a
plain about 900 meters wide, surrounded by massive cliffs of red and vari-
egated sandstone. The plain contains ruins of temples and houses, as
well as a number of structures which are hewn out of the rock. Attempts
have been made to identify Petra Petra
tioned in the Bible. It seems to have been built around the 300s B.C. and
to have lasted through the period of Roman rule, but it fell into ruins after
the Moslem conquests of the 600s A.D.
PEULLETHAI (פﬠלﬨי, reward of the Lord) One of the gatekeepers for the
sanctuary; a Levite, and son of Obed-edom (I Chronicles 26).
PHANUEL (fanouhl (Luke 2) (פנואל (penuel), face of God) The father of
Anna the prophetess.
PHAROAH (פרעה) In the Bible, a title used as a name, or a title prefixed to a
name of a king of Egypt
one of the designations of the royal palace was “the Great House.” “Super-
intendent of the Domain of the Great House.” By 1800 B.C. this name for
the palace had attracted to itself some of the divine epithets associated
with the name of the king. It wasn't until 1500 that it came to be used as a
title for the inhabitant of the palace. Early in the 600s B.C. it was written in
the cartouche, or name ring, regularly reserved for the writing of the royal
name.
The pharaohs' names had meaning (e.g. Ramses (the sun-god Ra
is the one who begot him”); Amen-hotep (the god Amon is satisfied.”) The
18th Dynasty had 4 kings named Amen-hotep and 4 named Thut-mose (the
moon god Thoth is born); the 19th Dynasty had 2 kings named Ramses,
and the 20th had 9. When the heretic pharaoh changed his religion, he
changed his name from Amen-hotep to Akh-en-aton. At coronation a king
received 4 additional names asserting religious devotion or purpose.
together as a nation under a single government. Culturally, Upper Egypt
was as different from Middle Egypt as Middle Egypt was from Lower
the economy of Lower Egypt was more varied in agriculture and more
mercantile. In fact, the Egyptian called their country the “Two Lands.”
To bind together such disparate regions, the Egyptians insisted their
ruler was a god; he came from the realm of gods. By the state's dogma,
the entire land, its properties, and its peoples were his by divine right. By
the 5th Dynasty (2500) the dogma asserted that at death he became the
god Osiris. In the course of history various challenges were made to the
doctrine that the king was absolute because he was a god. As govern-
ment became more complex, it was no longer possible to govern directly
from the palace. An elaborate bureaucracy was constructed, headed by a
vizier, who sometimes had as much authority as Joseph had. By biblical
times there was a professional army, including foreign mercenaries.
The priests of the important gods were also jealous for worldly
power. By the 5th Dynasty it was asserted that the sun-god Ra of On was the king's father. By 1500 B.C., in the 18th Dynasty, Amon, the “hidden”
god of Thebes Karnak
became a powerful figure in the nation, taking his place beside the phara-
oh, the vizier, and the army’s commander. These competitors for political
power united to remove the king from immediate contact with the people
and the state, “elevating” him to the status of god-symbol. He had great
power, but it was a power which he had to share.
P-66
This picture of a remote palace figure does not accord very well with
the account given in Genesis and Exodus. In defense of the biblical pic-
ture it may be claimed that after 1100 B.C. there were pharaohs who were
little more than rulers of city-states. From the time that Egypt
to set up an Asiatic empire, the pharaohs contracted a number of interna-
tional marriages to cement alliances with friendly nations. Victories
abroad brought many foreign slaves into Egypt
household servants and body servants to the kings and nobles, and there-
by rose to positions of trust and responsibility.
The picture of the pharaoh’s court, with his counselors, the “wise
men and magicians,” is also familiar from Egyptian texts. The interpreta-
tion of dreams had its special importance for the pharaohs. Joseph’s re-
sponsibility for assessing and collecting taxes accords with what we know
about an Egyptian vizier’s duties. The pharaoh who promoted Joseph,
the pharaoh of the Oppression and the pharaoh of the Exodus can't be
identified by name or even by century. The pharaoh who honored Joseph
was much earlier. The fairest attitude toward the stories about Egypt
Genesis and Exodus is that folk memory had retained the essentials of a
Hebrew experience but had later clothed that memory with some details
imperfectly recollected.
PHARISEES (farisaioi, (פרושים), separate) An influential party among the
Jews during intertestamental and New Testament (NT) times.
For an understanding of the Pharisees’ origins and antecedents, we
must go back to the pre-exilic institutions of the prophetic guilds and the
priesthood. In the NT picture of Pharisaism, the prophetic demands of the
law were buried beneath a mass of petty Pharisaic regulations. But there
is a sense in which the conflict between Pharisees and Sadducees was a
revival of the ancient conflict between prophet and priest in Israel
During the Exile, Israelites had to be content with the dream of the
Book of the Law, which they had been able to take with them. Under the
restoration of Ezra, the old Israel
rity, was re-established; but the law did not cease to be the nation's soul.
There grew up side by side with the temple, a body of “lawyers” called
scribes or Sopherim. Torah was still taught and practiced in the temple
and its restored priesthood; its interpretation was still the primary function
of the temple hierarchy.
The restoration was a restored priestly government in which the pri-
vileges of interpretation were vested solely in the priestly caste. The law,
not the temple, was the primary factor in postexilic Jewish life; the stage
was set for when Torah could stand in opposition to temple and be taught
and applied among the people by a new class of lay “lawyer,” who owed
no allegiance to the temple and were prepared even to resist its rule and
enactments.
See also the entry in the Old Testament Apocrypha/Influences Out-
See also the entry in the Old Testament Apocrypha/Influences Out-
side the Bible section of the Appendix.
The gospels’ picture of the Pharisees as strict legalists, observing all
the minutiae of their elaborate legal tradition, including their ritualistic or-
dinance, is in keeping with all we know about them from other sources.
Pharisaic exclusiveness led to a caste-bound society where contact be-
tween the exclusive sect's members and the rest of the population was re-
gulated by a system designed to minimize uncleanness contracted in the
unavoidable intercourse of daily life.
The Pharisaic canon of scripture went far beyond Moses’ 5 books to
include both the Prophets and the Writings. The Pharisees allow their hala-
koth (laws and ordinances) of the Torah to be influenced by this wider scrip-
tural authority. It was in Pharisee circles that the Jewish messianic hope
was nourished on the ancient prophetic scriptures. It is presented in the
ideal of the restoration of the lineage of David. Haggai was the last pro-
phet to point to David, while Zechariah emphasized the priestly aspect of
the messianic hope.
When the Romans took over direct rule of the country, internal af-
fairs became the concern of the Sanhedrin under the high priest as presi-
dent. But the struggle for ascendancy and power between the 2 parties
continued. There is no reason to doubt that the Pharisees exercised a po-
werful influence within the Judaism of our Lord’s time. It was on the
Pharisees’ instigation that Agrippa put James, the Lord’s brother, to death.
But it is doubtful if they still enjoyed the same popularity with the masses.
By Jesus’ time and just beyond, Pharisaic thought had become a concept
mainly limited to the middle class, rather than a popular movement.
This loss of influence with the broad masses applied to Pharisaic
religion, no less than to the membership of the sect. In Jesus’ time the
broad picture of Pharisaic thought can't have been very different from that
of rabbinical Judaism after Jesus’ death. It was a sterile religion of codi-
fied tradition regulating every part of life and observing strict separation.
Its golden age lay in the 200 years before Christ, where its important
ideals and conceptions are to be found.
P-67
PHARPAR (פרפר, swift) A stream mentioned with Abana as one of Damas-
cus' rivers. It may identical with the river now called Nahr el-’ A’waj,
which flows down from Anti-lebanon and disappears in Bahret Hijjane.
In Wadi ‘A’waj there were in ancient times important centers of settlement.
A mound southwest of Damascus
must have been of considerable importance.
PHICOL (פיכל, all-commanding) Abimelech’s commander-in-chief in contest
with Abraham (Genesis 21).
one of the river valleys of the ancient country and Roman province of Ly-
city was called Neokoros in connection with the cult of the emperor.
Administratively the city belonged to the Sardis district, which main-
tained its status as the leading city of Lydia Philadelphia
was based on agriculture, textile, and leather industry. In the 400s A.D. the
city was nicknamed “little Athens
The rise of Christianity here and the early history of its church cannot yet
be substantiated by archaeological discoveries. The subsequent history of
the site and the rise of the modern city of Alaşehir
dence of its earlier history. The story of Philadelphia
Christianity was, however, renewed in the days of attacks on the Byzantine
quered territory and withstood 2 sieges with heroism; it fell in 1391.
PHILEMON, LETTER TO. A letter written by Paul; now the 18th book of the
New Testament canon. It contains either a request that the slave One-
simus be restored to Philemon and his owner's household, or that the
slave be freed for evangelical work in the Christian community.
Most scholars accept the authenticity of Philemon. The major
ground for question is the close connection of this letter with Colossians
and Ephesians, both of which have major differences from the rest of
Paul’s letters. Even if Ephesians is not accepted, there is no valid rea-
son for doubting Paul’s authorship of Colossians and Philemon. All evi-
dence points to its belonging to the earliest Pauline collections.
The destination of the letter is not so easily settled. Some believe
that this letter is the original “letter from Laodicea
Colossians 4, because it was sent at the same time as Colossians, it was
clearly a church letter, and that a letter so commended by Paul isn't likely
to have been lost. The purpose and content of the letter is an eloquent and
graceful appeal for the freedom of a slave. Punishments were severe for
runaways, and this slave had not only run away, but had also robbed his
master. Under ordinary circumstances, Onesimus might have been in dan-
ger for his life in going back to his master. But he has come to know that
master of souls, Paul, and has become his “child.”
See also entry in the Old Testament Apocrypha/Influences Outside the Bible section of Appendix.
PHILIPPI (oi Filippoi) See also entry in the Old Testament Apocrypha/ Influ- Philippi ’s population included Thracians indigenous to the region, pi is described as the “leading city of the district of Macedonia,” but since lippi include 2 Latin crosses which may belong from the 100s to the 300s,
Greece el
Ephesus Rome sus Ephesus
Gaza Ashkelon , and Ashdod Gath loh and the capture of the ark. Under Samuel's leadership, some respite
Gaza dod Gath Philistia and Ashdod Gaza
dan
PHOENICIA Phoenicia Byblos Sidon Tyre Beirut Phoenicia' Phoenicia Syria Lebanon Egypt Egypt Phoenicia Phoenicia Phoenicia cia
Tyre Phoenicia Byblos Egypt North Africa and a 4th one to Spain cia Tyre Phoenicia Phoenicia Phoenicia
cia Adonis River
PHOENIX harbor of Crete
PHRYGIA (frugia) In the period of written ancient history, the name given to
Paul might have been minded to keep the young man with him in
prison instead of sending him back to his master. He doesn't command
the owner to free the culprit, indicating his preference for the owner's con-
sent, so that the slave’s freedom would be a gift of the spirit. Regardless
of whether the young man remained with Paul or was freed by his master,
they would be partners, brothers beloved in the circle of Christian friend-
ship. The final touch of tactfulness and skill is the expression of faith on
Paul’s part that even more will be done for the runaway than is asked for
in the letter.
The greatest question is whether Paul’s request is for the slave’s re-
instatement in the household of the owner, or for his freedom. The evi-
dence is strong enough to support the conclusion drawn by Knox that we
do know the nature of the service to which Archippus is called; that ser-
vice is the freeing of the slave. An Onesimus is mention as bishop of the
church at Ephesus
writing of Philemon, he would not be too old to be the bishop of Ephesus
at the time of Ignatius’ writing.
Even the casual reader experiences a glowing sense of the social
scale as he reads restrained eloquence in Paul’s appeal to a slave owner
on behalf of a slave. This appeal is for the way of gentleness and brother-
hood. It calls to a man and a community for the exercise of Christian love
in a time when cruelty would not have been criticized.
No where in Paul’s letters is there a discussion of the institution of
slavery. The Colossian letter takes slavery for granted and slaves are en-
joined to “obey in everything those who are your earthly masters. . .
Whatever your task, work heartily.” So even slavery can be lifted up as
service to God, and be dedicated as Christian service. In its very nature,
slavery is antithetical to the heart of the Christian gospel. Paul chose the
method of working for brotherhood within the prevailing social pattern.
P-68
Paul was in prison and the same persons send greetings with his as
send them in the Colossian letter. The customary assumption has been
that these two letters went together from Paul’s imprisonment in Rome
Recent scholarship has turned to another possibility: Ephesus
more accessible to the runaway slave from Colossae
one of the “far more imprisonments” mentioned in II Corinthians 11. If
he is in Ephesus
has a more plausible background. If the Ephesian imprisonment is
accepted as the place of the writing, then the date of the Letter to Phile-
mon would be around 56 A.D. If Rome
date would be half a decade later.
PHILETUS. A Christian who used “profane jargon,” such as a denial of the re-
surrection of the body and thereby could destroy some believers' faith
(II Timothy 2).
PHILIP (FillippoV) 1. Philip the tetrarch, son of Herod the Great and Cleo-
patra of Jerusalem. The appointment was made by the Emperor Augustus
in accordance with Herod the Great's latest will. Philip’s tetrarchy inclu-
ded Batanea, Trachonitis, Auranitis Gaulantis, and Panias. Effective con-
trol of these regions was essential to the Roman state, because they
formed a first line of defense against the Nabateans and the Parthians; the
population of the area was largely non-Jewish. Philip ruled with justice
and benevolence. His capital was located at Beth-Saida. He also built the
pagan city Caesarea Phillipi. After his death in 34 A.D. his tetrarchy be-
came part of the Roman province Syria. Philip isn't the Philip who is
named as Herodias' 1st husband. Philip the tetrarch married Herodias’
daughter.
2. Philip the apostle. In the Synoptic gospels. Philip is mentioned
only in the lists of the apostles. In the Gospel of John he has a larger role
in bringing Nathanael to Jesus, and in the feeding of the 5,000. Referen-
ces to Philip in the 100s reflect a tendency to confuse the apostle with Phi-
lip the evangelist. A Gnostic work the Gospel of Philip, is mentioned by
Epiphanius.
3. Philip the evangelist is not to be confused with Philip the apostle.
He appears as one of the Greek-speaking Christians set apart to perform
administrative tasks in the Jerusalem community. Following the martyr-
dom of Stephen, he fled to Samaria, where he was successful as a missio-
nary. He preached in every city from Ashdod to Caesarea on the sea.
Philip and his 4 daughters are remembered in later tradition.
ences Outside the Bible section of Appendix. Philippi was in eastern Ma-
edonia in the region bounded by the Strymon River on the west and the
Nestos River on the east, about 16 km inland from the Aegean Sea on a
plain enclosed by mountains. Philippi ’s acropolis was on a spur, with the
city at its foot. Through the plain and directly through the city ran the
main route from Asia to the West, called the Via Egnatia.
Greek settlers, and Romans introduced as colonists by Antony
vian. Like the population, the religion was composite. In Acts 16, Philip-
Amphipolis is the capital of the district, it is more likely that the sentence
originally read a “city of the first district of Macedonia, and a colony.”
The city's forum lay directly beside the Via Egnatia and was a rec-
tangular area the size of a football field. At the northeast and northwest
corners of the forum rose the symmetrical facades of two large temples.
The symmetrical arrangement of the forum suggests its major building
were planned and erected at the same time. It is judged that this construc-
tion work was not earlier than Anthony’s successor, Marcus Aurelius (161-
80). It is probable that the forum was built on the place and to some ex-
tent after the plan of the more ancient forum; the theater was rebuilt in
Roman style in the 100s A.D.
In Acts 16 Paul and his party are described as going “outside the
gate to the riverside” to find the “place of prayer.” Over the Via Egnatia,
a little over 1.5 km west of Philippi , was a Roman arch; just beyond this
was the river which Appian says was called by some Ganga . The arch
could mark a line enclosing a space outside the city wall within which buil-
ding, burial, and strange cults were prohibited. This arch may have been
the one beneath which Paul passed. Later evidences of Christianity at Phi-
Christian epitaphs, and two large basilicas of the 400s and 500s.
P-69
PHILIPPIANS, LETTER TO THE. (Filipphsioi) A letter written by Paul to the
church founded by him in the Macedonian city of Philippi
ly in prison, facing a crisis which may end in death. Church tradition asso-
ciates the letter with Rome
imprisonment at Caesarea . Of all Paul’s letter to churches, Philippians is
the most personal. Facing misrepresentation, persecution, and martyr-
dom, he repeatedly proclaims his Christian confidence, and sounds the call
to “rejoice.”
This letter was unquestionably written by Paul; in thought and lan-
guage it bears throughout signs of his personality; it is included in the ca-
nons of the 100s. Acts tells nothing of a Jewish synagogue at Philippi .
The congregation may have been predominantly Gentile. Philippians 4 tell
of the active part played by women in its early history. The Philippians’
devotion to the Apostle found practical expression in the repeated contribu-
tions sent to help him in his missionary work. Paul paid them a 2nd and
3rd visit. The 2nd came as he passed through Macedonia
Contents and Purpose—The contents of Philippians show an or-
dered sequence of thought rather than a systematic arrangement of topics.
In the crisis confronting him the Apostle has read a soul-searching lesson
which he wishes his beloved Philippians to share with him. It is that the
Christian goal can be reached only through humility.
The salutation of the first two verses comes from Paul and Timothy,
who had been with the Apostle when the church was founded; the recipi-
ents are bishops and deacons. It is probable that the ministry at Philippi
is still at a rudimentary stage, and that the terms used are still in a mea-
sure descriptive of function. The bishops are equivalent to presbyters or
elders. The deacons would have specific duties of a subordinate kind.
The introduction of the next 9 verses, longer and more detailed than is
usual in Paul’s letters, suggests the Apostle’s deep concern for unity.
Paul proceeds at once in the 2nd 1/2 of chapter 1 to assure the Phi-
lippians that his recent experiences have advanced the cause of the gos-
pel. Many of the local Christians had acquired a new boldness in prea-
ching, and Paul rejoices that Christ is being proclaimed. He balances the
relative advantage of life and death, expressing in the end his firm con-
viction that he will live, to be of service to the Philippians and to visit
them.
The Philippians must contend as one for the faith and be ready to
suffer. An appeal for Christian humility in chapter 2 is reinforced in a sub-
lime Christological passage. Emphasis is here laid on obedience, and
for advancing the gospel’s cause in a heathen environment. If Paul
should be called to consummate by his death the sacrifice which they are
offering in life, he and they will have good cause to congratulate one ano-
ther. Paul then writes calmly about future plans, such as sending Timo-
thy to Philippi , and coming soon himself.
In chapter 3, Paul suddenly launches out into an impassioned tirade
against Jewish propagandists. Stirred to the depths, he turns from denun-
ciation to recall what Christian faith has meant to him, as true a son of Isra-
against 2 tendencies to backslide: false “perfectionism”; and libertinism
which panders to the body. The apostle in the 1st 1/2 of chapter 4 again
exhorts his converts to steadfastness, to unity, to prayerfulness, and to
other virtues. Paul thanks the Philippians for their latest gift in the last 14
verses of chapter 4. He does so with cordiality, but also with a manly inde-
pendence. The letter then closes with greetings and benediction.
Place and Date of Writing—3 possible locations need to be consi-
dered: Rome Caesarea ; and Ephesus
Paul’s imprisonment letters were written from Rome
has endorsed this position, and has placed Philippians, with its threat of
death, as last among those written from Rome
pians might have come between I and II Corinthians.
The Roman origin of the letter is essentially a hypothesis, to be
weighed in the balance with other hypotheses. Acts 28 gives a very diffe-
rent picture of Paul’s position as a prisoner and of the attitude of the local
Christians. His expectation of going to Philippi after his release would
imply an abandonment of his hope of advancing from Rome Spain
The possibility of Caesarean origins for this letter has continued to have a
few powerful advocates. But is it likely that at Caesarea death loomed for
Paul. And why should Paul at Caesarea plan to go soon to Philippi instead
of going to Rome
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Ephesus' case calls for more detailed examination. The fierce hosti-
lity which Paul experienced in Asia very probably issued in one or more
imprisonments. If Paul writes from Ephesus
pians 2 have an exact parallel in the Ephesus
frequent comings and goings are much more easily understood if Paul is in
The interval during which the generous Philippians “had no oppor-
tunity” to help the apostle was perhaps as much as 10 years. The situa-
tion becomes much more probable, if after assisting the Apostle at Thessa-
lonica and at Corinth
center, Ephesus
domus Caesaris (Caesar’s Household), have no necessary reference to
headquarters.
Paul’s ministry in Asia was one of the most challenging periods in
his missionary career; certain parties in Judaism were determined to ac-
complish his death and to win back his Gentile churches into the ancient
Jewish religion. Partly to counter this Judaizing movement, and as a de-
monstration of the reality of Gentile Christianity, Paul began to organize
an offering for the needy “saints” in Jerusalem
rence in Philippians to the collection has been used as an argument
against dating Philippians from Ephesus
ferred to wait until he or one of his deputies could arrive to lay the scheme
personally before them.
The crisis behind Philippians was obviously serious and prolonged.
The objection that Acts says nothing of it mustn't be exaggerated, because
the function of Acts wasn’t to provide a comprehensive report of events.
It is urged that Paul could never have been put to death in Ephesus
cause as a Roman citizen he could appealed to Caesar. But as a Chri-
stian he might have preferred to accept death. Philippians, if written from
patched I Corinthians, which may recall the crisis behind the Philippian
letter in the words “fighting with beasts at Ephesus
Doctrine and Unity of the Letter—In Philippians, doctrine is ex-
pressed, as it were, incidentally, in relation to the hard facts of life and
death. The theological highlight is the Christological passage in Philippi-
ans 2, telling how the humiliation and self-sacrifice of Jesus was a prelude
to exaltation and universal acclamation. It represents an early Christian
hymn expressing Christian doctrine in terms of Christian worship. The
hymn would be the earliest known instance of the 3-fold divisions of
Christ’s life into pre-existence, life on earth, and exaltation to heaven.
The occurrence in I Corinthians and Romans of this contrast between the
1st and the 2nd Adam is in line with an Ephesian date for Philippians.
Jesus is depicted in the hymn as the “servant” of Isaiah 52 and 53.
The general picture is not the familiar Pauline one of the Messiah, cruci-
fied and risen, but that other picture of the Son of Man who was God’s
“servant” and is now enthroned as Lord. Philippians has many links with
I Corinthians, a letter written near the end of Paul’s time in Ephesus
Both letters show that he himself has looked death in the face, and has
been thinking deeply about a heavenly or glorified body.
The abrupt transition to fierce invective at the beginning of chapter 3
has led to the hypothesis that here we have part of a separate letter. How-
ever, it is likely that, before turning to those other matters with which he
wished to close the letter, Paul recalled that he ought to warn the Philippi-
ans of the Judaizing danger. It is altogether probable, however, that just
as the Philippians communicated from time to time with the Apostle, so
also other letters passed from him to them.
PHILISTINES (פלשתים, from the root meaning “wallow in the dust”) A people
of Aegean origin who occupied the southern coast of Palestine
often at war with the Israelites.
Origin, Territory, and Culture—The name Philistine is first found
in the Egyptian form prst as the name of the “People of the Sea,” who inva-
ded Egypt
both Pilisti and Palastu. According to biblical tradition, the Philistines
came originally from Caphtor, the Hebrew name for Crete .
There is, however, no archaeological indication of the Philistine oc-
cupation of Crete . The Philistines were part of the second wave of the elu-
sive “People of the Sea,” who attacked Egypt
and the eastern Mediterra nean coast. Of the “People of the Sea” only the
Philistines can be positively identified. During the 1300s and 1200s B.C.
they both assimilated the Minoan-Mycenean culture patterns and seriously
disturbed it in its eastern regions.
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“Philisitia” is the name given to that part of the coastal plain of Pale-
stine between Joppa & the Wadi Ghazzeh. The Philistine consisted of
and Ekron about 9.6 km inland due west of Jerusalem
fertile but there is constant danger of the encroaching sand dunes in the
southern part of coast. The Greek name for Philistia (Palestine
dually applied to the whole country.
There are no documents in the Philistine language. Only 2 Philistine
names have possible Asianic connection—Goliath having been compared
with Alyattas and Achish with Anchises. The Philistines, it may be sur-
mised, lost their language soon after coming to Palestine
naanite dialect. Beyond the fact that the Philistines were uncircumcised
and were, therefore despised by the Israelites, we know of no other cultu-
ral trait that can be attributed to them. All their gods known to us have
Semitic names. They had temples to Dagon in Gaza
these temples lasted into the Greek period.
Until their defeat by David, the Philistines lived chiefly in 5 indepen-
dent cities ruled by seranim, “lords.” After their defeat, the title seranim is
no longer used, and it is replaced by “king.” In their period of expansion
the Philistines were able to muster large, well-armed troops of foot soldiers,
archers, charioteers. Both individual combat and shock troops were used
by the Philistines.
No real excavation has taken place in Philistine territory proper, with
only trial excavations at Ashkelon . The excavations at adjacent sites have
provided some information, but our sources for Philistine material culture
are limited. Ancient pictures of their ships show a curved keel, high stem
and bow, and straight mast rising from the middle of the boat. The Phili-
stine warrior wears a helmet with a plumed headdress. From the Old Tes-
tament we learn that Goliath was armed to the teeth. The weapons used
by Goliath undoubtedly were made by a Philistine ironsmith.
The clearest sign of Philistine presence remains the so-called “Phi-
listine pottery,” dating from 1190-1000 B.C., which is found in abundance
in the plains of Philistia , the Negeb, and in the Shephelah (e.g. the cities
of Dor, Beth-zur Megiddo Bethel
cenean and Cypriote wares. The chief types are buff-colored craters,
beer jugs with spouted strainers, cups and stirrup vases with a white wash
or slip on which are painted reddish-purple or black geometrical designs.
History—The Philistines first settled the coast of Palestine
being repulsed from Egypt Ashkelon , Ashdod Gath Gaza
from older sources and must have been captured by the Philistines from
their Canaanite inhabitants. Ekron may have been a newly founded Phili-
stine city. Although they were primarily a warrior overlord class, they
came with their families and imposed themselves upon the inhabitants.
There are no further reports in the Old Testament of any opposition to, or
revolts against, the Philistines on the part of the inhabitants of the coastal
cities.
It is only when they come into conflict with the Israelites that there
are literary records concerning them. The ensuing pressure upon the Da-
nites and Judeans is reflected in the Samson saga. The unsuccessful Is-
raelite resistance at Ebenezer ended in the Philistine destruction of Shi-
was won from the Philistines. Saul, at his reign's beginning, was able to
remove the Philistine yoke from his people.
The acceptance of David and his band as auxiliaries by Achish of
Gath and his lack of control over David’s movements point up Philistine
weakness. After David was anointed king over all Israel
and attacked him in the Valley of Rephaim Jerusalem
ted by David at Baal-perazim. The Philistines were reduced to a secon-
dary role. Their hold over the shores of Palestine Phoenicia
ken, and Phoenician maritime expansion became possible.
Scraps of various tales which celebrated his victories have been
preserved. David subdued the city of Gath
Philistine cities, mercenary troops joined David’s personal army, such as
the Cherethites and Pelethites. After their defeat by well-organized forces,
the Philistine drive for expansion ceased. It is quite possible that the ru-
ling Philistine military class had been wiped out and strong assimilation
with the native Canaanite population had already taken place. The typical-
ly Philistine pottery of Early Iron Age II (1025-900 B.C.) sites dominated
by the Philistines disappears.
At the beginning of the reign of Solomon the vassal status of Gath
remained unchanged. Egyptian influence in Philistia during the end of the
United Monarchy may be surmised from the campaign of an unnamed
Pharaoh and Sheshonk I using Gaza Palestine
boam had fortified.
P-72
During the next 50 years there were border battles involving rela-
tively large numbers between the Philistines and Israel
phat's reign, the Philistines paid tribute to Judah
rences to the Philistines, it is also clear that Arabian tribes now occupied
the territory to the south of Philistia . The city of Gath
by Hazael of Aram during his raid into Judah
successfully raided Philistine territory. Even though no destruction of the
city is reported, Gath Gath
came under the rule of Ashdod
During Ahaz’s reign, the Philistines once again raided Judah
occupied cities. This occupation was short-lived, since Ashkelon and
stormed Gaza
The Ashdodeans placed Iamani, on the throne. By forming an alliance in-
cluding Philistia , Judah Edom Moab Ash-
attacked Gaza Palestine,
tured Beth-dagon, Joppa, Banai-Barqa, and Azuru.
The traditional dislike of the Philistines, reflected in both the Pro-
phets and the Psalms, was intensified by their participating during this pe-
eriod in the Phoenician slave trade. During the reigns of Esarhaddon and
Ahurbanipal, the kings of Gaza Ashkelon , Ekron, and Ashdod
as loyal vassals of Assyria .
After Assyria's military collapse, the Philistine cities, particularly
by the Scythians and were overrun by the Egyptians under Neco. The
Philistines were allied with Egypt
any remaining sparks of Philistine independence, and deported both ru-
lers and people. The later history of the cities Ashdod Ashkelon , and
population.
PHILO JUDEUS. An Alexandrian Jew contemporary with Jesus. His writing is
about Jewish beliefs beyond the Old Testament (OT) (See entry in OT Apo-
crypha/Influence Outside the Bible section of the Appendix).
PHILOLOGUS. A Christian man and head of a family, greeted by Paul in
Romans 16.
PHILOSOPHY (filosofia, love of wisdom) This word eventually took on the
narrower meaning of the systematic treatment of a given subject, or specu-
lation with regard to truth and reality. In Colossian 2, the author warns his
readers to beware of those who would “kidnap” them by philosophy, an
“empty deceit” to his way of thinking. The author understands philosophy
as contrary to what was revealed in Christ. The author is here referring to
a specific philosophy. In Acts, Paul conversed with “Epicurean and Stoic
philosophers” in Athens
but they ask him for a fuller statement, which he gave them.
PHINEHAS (פינחס, mouth of brass) In ancient memory a Israelite of such im-
portance that a site in the hill country of Ephraim was called “Gibeah of
Phinehas. He was most likely a northern priest. Late postexilic tradition
identified Phinehas as the third figure in the Aaronite descent of the priest-
hood. Four postexilic stories set forth the significance of Phinehas in late
tradition.
1st, in the time of Moses, an Israelite came into camp with a Midia-
nite woman. Phineas saw this as a defection from Yahweh and pierced
both of them with with a spear. For his zealous devotion to Yahweh’s
honor, Yahweh gave the priesthood to Phinehas and to his descendants.
2nd, when Moses sent an expeditionary force to exterminate the Midia-
nites, he sent Phinehas along either as leader or as priest.
3rd, Phineas was the leader and spokesman of a commission of
the 10 chiefs of the tribes west of the Jordan Jor-
witness to both sides of the Jordan
when the Israelites inquired of Yahweh whether to fight against the Benja-
minites, Phineas delivered the favorable oracle; in Chronicles Phineas is
listed as superintendent of the gatekeepers.
PHLEGON (flegwn, burning) A Christian man greeted by Paul in Romans 16,
along with 3 other men and the Christian associated with them.
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PHOEBE (foibh) A Christian woman and ,Cenchreae's church deaconess. It
was Corinth's eastern seaport. Phoebe distinguished herself by services
she had rendered to her church & to Paul (Romans 16). There is a gro-
wing tendency to translate the Greek as simply “helper” rather than im-
plying a formal position. Regardless, the informal service of the kind
rendered by Phoebe soon became the inspiration for a regular order of
deaconesses.
coast, north of Palestine
Name & Geography—The term “Phoenicia
Greeks to to refer to the Canaanites' country sometime before 1200 B.C.,
at which time “Canaanites” and “Phoenicians” were synonymous. The
term “Canaan ” was 1st used for all of Syria-Palestine and came from the
word meaning “purple dye.” The Greek word phoinike, which means “red
purple,” is a translation of the name Canaan .
190-210 km long. The Lebanese mountains formed a natural eastern
border; the River Eleutherus was the northern border, and Mount Carmel
was the southern border. Especially along the mountains the coastal plain
is very narrow, about 8 km. The land strip between the sea and the
mountains is fertile and was already well cultivated in ancient times.
Many trees were found: figs, dates, and olives.
On the whole, a large part of the country was forested, but since
the winter temperature is lower along the mountain slopes, hardier kinds
of trees were found, first and foremost cedars, pines and firs. Today only
two small, aging forests of cedar are left. The Lebanese mountain range
is around 168 km long, from the Nahr el-Kebir in the north to Nahr el-
Qasimiyeh, near Tyre
meters; the tallest, el-Qurnat el-Sawda, is 3,340 meters above sea level.
The strip of land along the mountains is so narrow that people
living there had to turn to the sea in order to find a living. They took up
sea trade and developed it to a degree which was unknown till then.
along the eastern Mediterranean . The chief product for which Phoenicia
was famous was purple dye; it brought enormous incomes to the Phoeni-
cian cities, but made them rather unpleasant to live in, as there was a
strong smell from the dye and the factories. Weapons and wine were
also made in Phoenicia
towns on the ancient sites, which makes excavations difficult or even im-
possible. Excavations at Gebal (Byblos
times(6000-4000 B.C.) that a Mediterranean race was living there. This
civilization vanished suddenly after 3500, and its place was taken by a
new civilization of a characteristically urban type. New weapons were
used, brought by invaders from Asia Minor and made of a new metal,
bronze. From the east came more invaders. They were Semites, and
they mixed with the former population.
Already in the 3000s Semites invaded Mesopotamia . They were
driven back by Sargon I, himself a Semite, but they kept their hold on
cities of Syria Lebanon
Around 1700, King Hammurabi of Babylon
dom and its capital, Mari. The following centuries were troubled times,
as the Hyksos swept through Phoenicia
far back in history. Egyptian objects have been found which date back to
3000 B.C. Pharaoh Snefru of the Fourth Dynasty (2650) brought 40 ships
filled with cedar logs. Pharaoh Thut-mose marched toward the north with
his army. Phoenician and Syrian city-states, which didn't usually work too
well together, forgot their enmity for once and allied against the advancing
enemy. Their armies were crushed by Thut-mose at Megiddo
His successors, Amen-hotep III and IV, were weak and unable to hold
The Phoenician city-states' princes showed no loyalty toward the
Pharaoh, except in their letters. Much of the trouble was caused by the
Amorite prince 'Abdu-Ashirta, who tried to conquer other Phoenician cities.
He feigned loyalty toward Egypt
show that Abdu-Ashirta was the opposition’s leader against the Egyptians.
Abdu-Ashirta’s son ‘Aziru also professed loyalty to Egypt
the country, but he was actually in allegiance with the Hittite conqueror of
northern Syria
1500. Who the Sa-Gaz were, is not quite sure, but they seem to have
been mercenaries in some of the great armies operating at this time. The
Habiru were groups of warriors, nomads and brigands, who served in seve-
ral armies. Egypt Syria
ritories. In 1272 Ramses had to sign a non-aggression pact with them,
leaving northern Syria
only nominal.
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History: 1100-Pax Romana—A new threat had begun to rise in the
east. Around 1100 King Tiglath-pileser I of Assyria reached the Mediter-
ranean coast with his army. In the following centuries Phoenicia
golden age. It was then that King Hiram, or Ahiram (981-947) ruled in
King Solomon.
Development of trade and shipping just at this time most probably
had its special background. The Phoenicians had to build their whole fu-
ture on sea trade. They were hemmed in by strong powers which made
expansion on land nearly impossible. They fought, even desperately,
when it was necessary, but they didn’t seek war. 1st, Trade between
went to Cyprus Crete and Sicily
The Phoenicians had learned navigation through experience and
study. They were able to sail by night by using the polestar. They sailed
broad ships, driven by sails and by oars. Already in the 1000s B.C., they
had settled in the great Mediterranean islands, and near 1000 they had
colonies in Cadiz Spain Tyre
ded Carthage
cians sailed the Atlantic and are supposed to have reached England
Phoenician colonies in Spain
as bases for trade. The colony which prospered most was Carthage
Free of conflict, Carthage
the Mediterranean coast and with the islands.
After the raid of Tiglath-pileser in 1100, Aramean invaders had en-
tered Phoenicia
to the coast of the Mediterranean , & the Phoenician cities didn't hesitate
to submit. Shalmaneser III (859-824) met the army of the Syria-Phoeni-
cian alliance at Qarqar and defeated it in 853 B.C. Some Phoenicians,
however, preferred to build their hopes on the new colony at Carthage
The decline began in the 700s, Tiglath-pileser III (745-727) recon-
quered Syria Phoeni-
Assyrian king Sennacherib (705-681) destroyed the palace of the king.
In 677 the king of Sidon
this time the Assyrian king destroyed Sidon Tyre
further hundred years. In 587 Nebuchadnezzar marched into Syria
his army; after a siege of thirteen years his soldiers defeated Tyre
this was a final blow for Phoenicia
A change in the status of Phoenicia
Cyrus had conquered Babylon
the Phoenician cities a tolerably independent position. When Cambyses
(530-522) attacked Egypt
Xerxes attacked Greece
the Phoenicians were given local autonomy. In the 300s Sidon Tyre
Arvad united in a new federation, and they instituted a meeting place,
which grew into a new city
capital for Phoenicia
The arrogance of the Persian governor who headed the meetings
here, and the weakening of the Empire prompted Phoenicia
against Artaxerxes III. The revolt was too early and led to the destruction
of Sidon Tyre
cities were rebuilt, but as a nation Phoenicia
Greek culture took root in Sidon Tyre
a lasting contribution to Greek culture. Pompey conquered Syria
Roman provinces, which Octavian (Augustus) put an end to in 31 B.C.
the different parts of the Empire were good, and this gave the Phoenicians
a new chance for their trade and industry. Syria Phoenicia
population and lived in luxury. When the first expansion of Christianity
began, it spread also to Phoenicia
graphical term.
Religion—Spiritual culture had early beginnings in Phoenicia
ting was introduced here. The alphabet came from this part of the world.
Phoenician religion has also influenced the religions in neighboring coun-
tries. The church historian Eusebius cites an ancient author, Philo of By-
blos, who was supposed to have had his information from an even more
ancient Phoenician author, called Sanchuniathon. Philo had translated this
author’s work into Greek.
P-75
Information is also found in the Tell el-Amarna letters, on the sar-
cophagi from Byblos
confirm the picture given by Eusibius and Philo. They show that the
Phoenician religion was connected with what is otherwise known of
western Semitic religion. It was a religion which combined the fears
and joys of daily life with cultic performance in many temples.
The leading god was El; his consort was Asherah, mother goddess
and queen of heavens. The young god who played a great role in Phoeni-
cian religion was Baal who was very popular in Phoenicia
of rain and thunder. Philo of Byblos has complicated narratives about
the creation of the world, the gods, and man. It is hard to find out what
is originally Phoenician here and what is of Greek origin.
Worship of Baal was found in most Phoenician cities, under many
guises. Most famous was the Baal of Tyre, Melqart, who eventually at-
tained a character of a maritime deity. In Sidon
to the importance of the god Eshmun.
The goddess Ashtart, with her cult prostitution, was well known
also in other countries. Ashtart was seldom worshiped alone. On her
side was often a male deity, usually known as Adonis (Lord). Ashtart,
who loved him, descended to the nether world to wrest him out of the
hands of death.
The usual name of this god in the Semitic world was Tammuz.
Adonis was a vegetation and fertility god, who was supposed to die when
the summer heat began. People from Byblos Phoeni-
festival.
Offerings and sacrifices of the Phoenicians were mainly the usual
Semitic ones. Human sacrifices played a certain role, especially in an-
cient times. The constantly burning fire in the sanctuaries was seen by
foreigners as a symbol of the insatiable greed of the Phoenician gods for
human sacrifices. Worship also occurred at “high places,” where a holy
stone was erected.
rower part of the island and west of Fair Havens. The centurion of Paul’s
ship to Rome
the owner of the ship and decided to try to reach the harbor of Phoenix
northeaster, struck the ship and drove it west-southwest in the direction of
the island of Cauda Malta
modern Loutro fits almost all of the references to ancient Phoenix
natural meaning in Acts 27 would be: “looking toward the southwest and
northwest.” This suggests that the harbor opened to the west.
a large area of Asia Minor . At an earlier age Phrygians were found in
most of Asia Minor. The Phrygians of the Iliad are related to Trojans,
and are mentioned as a vigorous, heroic people, but from the time of
their subjection by the Persians, they were politically submissive and
unimportant.
The limits of Phrygia varied continually. In northwestern Asia Minor
was Hellespontine, or Lesser, Phrygia. Greater Phrygia occupied west-
central Asia Minor. The northeast portion was taken over by the inva-
ding Gauls in the 200s B.C. Part of the northwest became Phrygia
Epictetus (“Acquired Phrygia”). Phrygia Paroreia was in the southeast
part of Phrygia.
In Roman times Phrygia included on the southwest the region
around Cibrya. In the Roman provincial administration, Greater Phry-
gia was split, with the smaller portion becoming part of Galatia and the
much larger portion formed part of the province called Asia. At the
very end of the 200s or early in the 300s A.D., two new provinces were
Phrygia Prima on the west and Phrygia Secunda to the east.
The Phrygians as a people often had alien rulers, and mingled
with other tribes. The Phrygians themselves don't seem to have ap-
pealed to a golden age of courage. The great trade routes from the
Aegean Sea eastward through central Asia Minor, crossed Phrygian ter-
ritory and fostered commercial and cultural interchange there. The
Phrygian religion showed a marked tendency to emotional and orgiastic
forms of expression. The sensuous fertility cult and intoxicating revels
formed part of Phrygian religious life.
The cosmopolitan population of Phrygia included large numbers of
Jews. Seleucus Nicator (312-280 B.C.) granted the Jews “citizenship in
the cities which he founded in Asia and Lower Syria.” Jews continued
numerous in Asia Minor under the Romans and had their privileges con-
firmed. The Jews of this region were known for their laxity in observing
their laws. The Talmud contains a saying that the baths and wines of
Phrygia had separated the ten tribes from their brethren.
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Paul’s Letter to the Colossians opposes a false teaching which
mingled Jewish and pagan ideas. The readiness with which many Phry-
gian and Lycaonian Jews accepted Paul’s message shows openness to a
new teaching. The fierceness with which the Jewish leaders opposed
Paul suggests that they were conscious of a tendency among Jews to
drop features of orthodox Jewish observance.
Christianity’s spread in Phrygia may be discussed in 3 parts. 1st,
in Acts 2, Jews from Phrygia were in Jerusalem at the first Pentecost
and heard Peter preach. 2nd, the travels of Paul in Phrygian Galatia
raise difficult problems. Coming from Pamphylia, he visited 2 Phrygian
cities, and 2 Lycaonian cities. Then, with Silas and Timothy, he passed
through either “Phrygia and the Galatian region,” or “the Phrygian and
Galatian region.” On his third visit to the Phrygian region Paul appa-
rently again came from Syrian Antioch. How much time Paul spent in
Phrygia depends on the interpretation of Phrygian verses from chapters
16, 18, and 19. In any case, the frequency with which Paul visited Phry-
gia in southern Galatia is noteworthy.
3rd, the history of the churches of the Lycus Valley is a part of the
story of Christianity in Phrygia; Paul did not preach there. Later tradition
says that John the Apostle and Philip worked in this area. It is clear that in
the latter part of the first century the churches of Phrygia had to withstand
active opposition. The inclusion of Laodicea in the book of Revelation
also throws light on conditions in Asian Phrygia in the years before 100
A.D. The church at Laodicea is described as well-to-do, complacent, spi-
ritually poor, and facing a persecution that could never be withstood by a
lukewarm faith.
The 100s shows Christianity strong in Phrygia but marked by dissen-
sion. Great leaders like Bishops Papias and Apollinaris of Hierapolis,
arose in this region. The Montanist movement, with its appeal to visions
and the new era of the Spirit, becomes prominent in Phrygia. Martyrdoms
continued in the 200s and under Diocletian (301-12). Eumenea was com-
pletely destroyed. In more peaceful times the church leadership of Phrygia
became more in harmony with that of the wider church.
PHYGELUS (FugeloV) Someone who, with Hermogenes and “all who are in
[the province of] Asia ,” deserted Paul, because of theological differences
or of a fear of sharing in Paul’s fate in Rome
PHYLACTERIES (תפלין (tih fil leen); fulakthria (fuh lak teh reeah) Small
receptacles, containing some verses of scripture, which were bound on the
forehead and arm during prayer. Jesus is said to accuse the scribes and
Pharisees that “they do all their deeds to be seen by men; for they make
their phylacteries broad and their fringes long.” The Mishna required male
Israelites above thirteento lay 2 cubical boxes, one on the head and one on
the left arm. The head phylactery contained 4 scriptural passages: Exodus
13:1-10; 11-16; Deuteronomy 6: 4-9; 11:13-21. The head phylactery bore
the letter ש twice, one with 3 prongs, and one with 4. The head phylac-
tery was firmly sewn by twelve stitches to a firm base of thick leather.
The strap was tied in a knot shaped like a Hebrew letter ד at the
of the head. The end of the strap was tied in the shape of a Hebrew letter
back “י.” The 3 Hebrew letters שדי formed the Hebrew word Shaddai
(Almighty). The phylacteries must be placed on the body in a certain or-
der, in certain exact positions, during certain prayers and benedictions.
The scriptural basis for the custom is found in the four passages of
scripture mentioned earlier. They speak of signs, frontlets, memorial,
jewels, as figures of the rites & words of scripture. The question arises
whether these signs or frontlets are to be interpreted in a figurative sense.
It can be argued that the four passages taken together point mostly in the
direction of a literal translation.
What is the meaning of a “frontlet between the eyes?” The idea
could have arisen only as an adaptation of similar marks on the forehead.
If the frontlets are figurative, then they are figurative applications of lite-
ral practices. It is then clear that to wear these frontlets or phylacteries is
a memorial duty laid upon the worshiper. The actual meaning of them
served not only to remind other worshipers of these commands, but also
perhaps to remind God of the obedience and presence of the worshiper.
It is such consideration as the foregoing which must to some
extent correct the views inferred from the fact that the Samaritans appa-
rently did not use them. It has been claimed that they were in use as early
as the 300s B.C., after centuries of growth in the custom. It is doubtful
the commands of Exodus and Deuteronomy were intended literally in the
beginning, but it is equally doubtful that the literal fulfillment is to be
dated as late as the postexilic period.
PHYSICIAN (רפא (ro pay), healer; iatroV (ee at ros)) Originally, one who
tended and repaired wounds; hence a bandager or healer.
P-77
PI-BESETH (פי־בסת) A city in the Nile Delta; capital of the 18th Lower Egyp-
tian nome. Pi-beseth occurs only in Ezekiel’s prophecy against Egypt. The
ancient name means “house of Bastet” (an Egyptian goddess represented
in the late period by the cat). Bubastis is a very ancient city with remains
dating well into the Old Kingdom. It wasn't until very late in its history,
however, that it achieved political importance as the capital and chief resi-
dence of the 22nd (Libyan) and 23rd dynasties (950-750 B.C.).
PI-HAHIROTH (פי־החירת) A town in the eastern Nile Delta near which Is-
raelites encamped during the initial stages of the Exodus; Pihahiroth lay
near Ball-Zephon and Migdol. The Primary Greek Old Testament treats
this name very strangely, by rendering the place name as a preposition and
a common noun (i.e. “opposite the encampment). The most reasonable of
the suggested identifications is that it's an altered form of the Egyptian Pr-
Hthr, “the house of Hathor.”
PILATE, PONTIUS (PilatoV) The Roman Procurator of Judea 26-36 A.D.,
and hence the judge in the trial and execution of Jesus.
Pilate receives but one mention in Roman sources, and in connec-
tion with Jesus. Tacitus (115) speaks of Jesus' execution by Pontius Pilate
in the reign of Tiberius. Philo relates an incident about Pilate and then
characterizes him as a ruler using rape, insult, murder, and inhumanity.
Josephus tells of 3 occasions, 1st, when Jewish scruples were of-
fended, troops who entered Jerusalem bearing standards with the image
of the emperor on them. A crowd gathered in protest; Pilate acceded to
their wishes rather than run the risk involved in opposing them. 2nd, Pi-
late’s intention to use temple funds for constructing an aqueduct aroused
a protest which was silenced by troops with bludgeons. A 3rd incident
involved Samaritans. An impostor promised to reveal the sacred vessels'
secret place on Mount Gerizim. When the Samaritans armed and ga-
thered at the mountain, troops dispersed them, and Pilate executed the
leading Samaritans. After an official complaint was sent, Pilate was dis-
placed and sent back to Rome.
In the New Testament (NT), Jesus is delivered to Pilate after the
Sanhedrin examined him. Luke 13 alludes to Pilate’s Galilean massa-
cre; 3 times in Acts allusion is made to Pilate. No mention is made in
Paul’s genuine letters. Philo and Josephus both blame Pilate for dire,
evil practices, so that a dark character is linked to him. Too little is
known of Pilate for a definite description of him to be attempted. The
fact that this procuratorship lasted 10 years is used as a basis to doubt
the Jewish and early Christian disparagement of him.
In Mark 15, the chief priests, elders and scribes bound Jesus and
led him to Pilate. The chief priests accused Jesus of many things, and
Jesus made no further answer. Pilate asked the crowd if he should re-
lease the “King of the Jews.” The crowd, however, asked him to release
Barabbas. Pilate, “wishing to satisfy the crowd, released for them Ba-
rabbas; and having scourged Jesus, he delivered him to be crucified.”
Pilate in Mark appears as a more or less impartial judge. It is indiffe-
rence, rather than weakness, which Mark portrays.
Matthew 27 recasts Mark’s account in a number of insignificant
details. A notable addition peculiar to Matthew relates that Pilate’s wife
sent word to him: “Have nothing to do with that righteous man, for I
have suffered much over him today in a dream.”
Luke 23 is a drastic reworking of Mark; what is not Mark is most
likely Luke engaging in free composition and not in the use of many
sources. Jesus is brought before Pilate, and after one question Pilate s
tates that he finds no crime in Jesus. Pilate took advantage of the pre-
sence in Jerusalem of Herod Antipas to send Jesus over to him. His sol-
diers treated him with contempt and mocked him. Pilate states a second
and third time that he has found no crime inJesus. Yet on the insistence
of the crowd he turns Jesus over to them.
In Matthew 27 and Mark 15, the indignities come from Roman sol-
diers; Luke has transferred these and attributes them to the soldiers of
Herod. This, together with Pilate’s assertion of Jesus’ innocence are con-
sistent with recurring motifs in Luke: Jesus was innocent of any viola-
tion of Jewish law; Jesus was a loyal Jew; and Christianity was no threat
to Rome
the Pilate represented in his account is truly the historical figure. It is ob-
vious the Synoptic gospels coat a historical kernel with a thick layer of
legend.
P-78
John 18 and 19 is different from the other 3. Pilate comes out to
them, to decline to receive Jesus and to suggest that the Jews themselves
should execute Jesus. They reply that it is illegal for them to put a man
to death. A discussion on kingship takes place, and Pilate asks the ques-
tion: “What is truth?” Pilate goes out to the people to declare Jesus’ in-
nocence. “You would have no power over me unless it had been given
you from above; therefore he who delivered me to you has the greater
sin.”
John goes beyond the Synoptic gospels in forgiving the Romans
and blaming the Jews. Christ permitted himself to undergo this fate of
crucifixion by asserting that Pilate was only a minor and passive charac-
ter. I Timothy 6 says that Jesus, when he was before Pilate, “made the
good confession.”
Modern scholarly judgment holds Pilate’s role as depicted in the
NT to be largely legendary. Neither the Christian nor the Jewish depic-
tion of Pilate is historical. The bare fact that Pilate was procurator in
Jesus’ time need not be doubted. The active participation of Romans in
the Crucifixion is also sound history. Hence, one can conclude that the
bare fact of Pilate’s having a part in the death of Jesus is historical.
See also the entry in the NT Apocrypha section of the Appendix.
PILDASH (פלדש) The sixth son of Nahor and Milcah. If a tribal name,
the location is unknown but probably to be sought in northern Arabia
with other Nahorites.
PILGRIMAGE (מגור (ma gor), sojourning) The King James Version uses
“pilgrimage” for the Hebrew word; the New Revised Standard Version
uses “sojourn.”
The purpose of a religious pilgrimage is to visit and worship at
the place where divine activity has occurred. Although pilgrimage as
part of Israel’s life and worship is never described directly in the Old
Testament, various allusions indicate the part pilgrimages must have
played. The basis of Israel’s early life as a federation appears to have
been those times of assembly. The covenant festival became the occa-
sion of a regular pilgrimage to the central sanctuary of the tribal federa-
tion where the ark of Yahweh rested (i.e. Shiloh).
One notable scholar finds evidence of an ancient regular pilgri-
mage to Mount Sinai. Another scholar suggests that Jacob’s trip from
Shechem to Bethel
During the period of settlement in Canaan, Israel took over many Cana-
anite elements of worship. The pilgrimage to the local sanctuary for
the 3 major feasts of the seasonal cycle became a fixed element of the
calendar.
Ancient centers of pilgrimage were undoubtedly the scenes of
markets and fairs. Bethel, Gilgal, and Beer-sheba were among the most
renowned cultic centers. The early prophetic voices denounced pilgri-
mage to the famous shrines and the attendant rites. The Deuteronomic
reform attempted to abolish worship at the pilgrimage centers, making
Jerusalem the only legitimate place of worship. After the Exile, pilgri-
mage to Jerusalem became a sacred dream and obligation of faithful
Jews in the Dispersion. The “Songs of Ascent” or “Pilgrim Sons” of
Psalms 120-134 may have been used by postexilic pilgrims enroute to
Jerusalem.
PILHA (פלחא, slice) One of the chiefs of the people, signatory to the cove-
nant of Ezra (Nehemiah 10).
PILLAR (מצבה (meets tsaw baw), monument; עמוד (am mode), column)
Metstsabah is borrowed by modern archaeologists and biblical scholars
and is spelled “massebah,” as a technical expression for a stone monu-
ment set up as a memorial or as an object of worship. Jacob set up a
pillar upon Rachel’s tomb. The monument which Absalom set up for
himself in his lifetime is also described as a massebah.
The sacred pillars of Canaanite places of worship or of Hebrew
shrines are mentioned in connection with the Asherim. The meaning of
the symbol is quite clear: God’s presence was revealed to Jacob during
his sleep. Jacob set up the stone on which he had rested as a testimony
to God’s indwelling in this particular place, appropriately called Bethel
or “House of God.”
A messianic passage in Isaiah refers to a massebah which shall be
erected on Egypt's border, and which would signify the lordship of God
over foreign nations. Jeremiah announces that the pillars of the sun-god
of Egypt shall be destroyed. The above references assume that the mas-
sebah is a monument of God’s actual presence, a sacred object, or even
an object of worship.
P-79
The Hebrew word ‘amod is translated often as “column” in the sense
of being a structural support. One of the halls of Solomon’s palace is called
Hall of Pillars, and the upper rooms of the building known as the House of
the Forest of Lebanon, rested on rows of pillars dividing the aisles on the
ground floor. The tabernacle of Exodus has four pillars of acacia wood.
In the case of the twin pillars of bronze at the entrance of the vesti-
bule of Solomon’s temple, the description of these pillars might well apply
to structural columns supporting the horizontal slab over the entrance;
later traditions have adopted this interpretation. While a few modern archa-
eologists and biblical scholars still favor the interpretation of the twin pillars
as functional elements, archaeological analogies support better the theory
of the twin pillars of bronze having no structural function, but being religi-
ous symbols.
The meaning of Moses’ 12 pillars’ is rather different. They stood for
the 12 tribes of Israel, united in the common worship of Yahweh. The word
“pillar,” as a translation of the Hebrew ‘amod, is also used to translate vari-
ous metaphors, such as the “pillar of cloud and fire,” which guided the Isra-
elites by day and night. The miraculous pillar plays a function similar to Ja-
cob’s massebah as a testimony to God’s invisible presence.
Stone pillars were found in large numbers in the course of excava-
tions, often in their original position. Most of them are functional struc-
tures, such as the rough monoliths which served to divide the aisles of Me-
giddo’s stables. However, it is evident that some stone pillars, standing
alone or in rows, could not have any structural purpose. Their association
with ruins and archaeological material of a religious nature invites us to see
them as sacred pillars or masseboth. Some of them are best interpreted
as signs of the presence of an invisible deity. A short pillar at Beth-shan is
most probably one of these, as is the one at Gezer. Thus understood, the
massebah is the counterpart of the asherah, a pillar of wood symbolizing
the principle of fertility.
In the case of multiple pillars, such as those of Gezer, it doesn't
seem that all of them were endowed with the same divine character. A
likely interpretation is that they stand for living persons or clans united in
the worship of the deity embodied in the sacred pillar mentioned above.
In a Canaanite temple of Hazor, one of the columns is engraved with 2
hands stretched in a gesture of adoration of the sun-god.
PILLAR OF FIRE AND OF CLOUD (עמוד אש וענן (‘am mode ‘ashe veh ‘aw
nawn)) This phrase appears in Exodus 14, and each element appears
separately several times. The pillar thus meets Israel at the edge of the
wilderness and continues thereafter with Israel in the desert. A study of
the passages shows that the Yahwist writer represents the pillar as gui-
ding and protecting. In Exodus 14, the pillar of cloud moves to the rear
of Israel, separating the Egyptians from the Israelites. In Exodus 34, the
cloud serves to both locate the presence and conceal the Yahweh’s appea-
rance. The Elohwist Writer has the cloud occasionally descending to
“stand” at the tent of meeting’s door outside the camp. In the Priestly
Writer there is the further idea of protection.
The word “pillar” is used of ordinary smoke, of a silver pillar, or of
palace pillars, and in various figurative expressions; otherwise the word
denotes a cultic platform. Solomon’s pillars, Boaz and Jachin, are now
known to be fiery lamp stands which emitted clouds of smoke and flame
by day and night at festival time. It is probable then, that the pillar of
fire and cloud in Exodus derives from Solomon’s temple.
PILLOW (כביר (keh beer), mattress; proskefalaion (pro skeh fa lay on))
A word used to refer to various supports for the head. The stone which
Jacob used as a pillow must have been large enough to serve as a cairn.
The pillow on which Jesus slept was probably a pad or mat spread in the
stern of the boat.
PILOT (חבל (kho bale), sailor; euqunw (yoo thoo no), steerer, governor) The
pilots referred to in Ezekiel 27, were Phoenicians associated with Tyre
maritime trade. In James 3 the tongue is compared to the small rudder
of the great ships.
PILTAI (פלטי, deliverance of the Lord) A priest and head of the house of Moa-
diah in post exilic period.
PIM (פים) A weight thought by some to be equal to ⅔ of a shekel (7.762
grams). The word was not understood until a stone weight with the in-
scription פים was found.
PIN (יתד (yaw thade), peg, nail) A wooden or metal peg used in a variety of
ways. The New Revised Standard Version uses “pin” only for the stick
used in a loom to tighten the weave.
P-80
PINE, PINE TREE (ברוש (beh ros), fir tree; תדהר (tid har), elm) A tree and its
wood, extensively used in building; usually mentioned with the Cedar.
The identification of the pine trees mentioned in the Bible is extre-
mely complex, and there is little agreement outside the “Cedars of Leba-
non” among bible scholars and botanists. It is quite possible that the con-
fusion existed in Bible times. It seems possible that the common and
abundant Aleppo Pine is often intended when berosh is used. The berosh
provided the lumber for the floor and the doors of Solomon’s temple. The
occurrence of beroshim in II Samuel 6 is a textual error; it should read
berosham, “in the tops of them.”
PINNACLE (שמשת (sheh maw shoth), windows (King James Version); pte-
rugion (pteh roog ee on), little wing) The Hebrew word suggests the
part of the buildings which gleams in the sun in New Jerusalem (Is 54)
The New Testament word refers to a part of the temple (Matthew 4;
Luke 4).
PINON (פינן, perplexed) An Edomite clan chief. The name represents either a
personal ancestor or it designates the geographical location of the clan.
PIRAM (פראם, like a wild ass) King of city-state of Jarmuth, southwest of
Joshua’s invasion of their territory.
PIRATHON (פרעתון, principal or free-town) A town “in the land of Ephraim
the Amalekite hill country”; a minor judge was buried there. Judges 5 in-
dicates a connection between the area in which Pirathon was located and the Amalekites. The most likely location of Pirathon is at Far’ata,
about 8 km southwest of Shechem.
PISGAH, MOUNT (הפסגה (ha pis gah), the piece) A location in the Abarim
mountains, opposite Jericho
The Israel stopping place following Bamoth is the “valley lying in
the Moab region by Pisgah’s top” (Numbers 21). One of the places Balak
took Balaam was “to the field of Zophim”; Moses viewed the Promised
Land from Pisgah’s top. 4 times Pisgah occurs in the phrase “the slopes
of Pisgah.” In territorial descriptions, mention is made of the “sea of the
Arabah, the Salt Sea, under the slopes of Pisgah.” Some understand Pis-
gah to be part of the Abarim Range
Pisgah”refers to the top of a particular mountain, perhaps the headland of
Ras es-Siyaghah next to Mount Nebo (See Nebo, Mount).
PISIDIA (Pisdia) A mountainous region in south central Asia Minor, bounded
by Pamphylia on the south, Lycia and Caria on the west, Phrygia to the
north, and Isauria to the east. From east to west it is 192 km and about 80
km. from north to south. It lay in the Taurus Mountain Range, which made
it difficult for invaders to conquer. Its wild, warlike people were slow to
yield to Greek and Roman influences. The mountainous region enclosed
fertile valleys, large lakes, and pasture land. It thus was able to support
many people.
The Galatian king Amyntas lost his life in 25 B.C., before he could
conquer Pisidia. The emperor Augustus made Antioch of Pisidia, a Roman
colony. At the beginning of Roman control, Antioch was considered to be
outside Pisidia. Later this Antioch was considered to be within Pisidia.
When the Roman province of Galatia was formed in 25 B.C., it included
not only Galatia proper, but also Pisidia, Lycaonia, and Isauria.
When Paul went north from Perga and through Pisidia, the latter re-
gion was part of the province of Galatia. There is no indication that on this
journey or on the return journey Paul stopped to preach in Pisidia; his route
through Pisidia cannot be determined. Perhaps he went north from Perga
and passed along the twin lakes called the Limnai; perhaps his route lay a
little farther east. In 74 A.D., Vespasian attached Pisidia’s southern part to
the Roman province Lycia-Pamphylia. Pisidia's northern part remained
part of Galatia.
PISPA (פספה) An Asherite, son of Jether. (I Chronicles 7).
PISTACHIO NUTS (בטנם (bow teh neem)) See Plants, under Fruit Trees;
See also Nuts.
PIT (בור (bore)) One of the many designations employed in the Old Testament
for the abode of the dead.
P-81
PITCH (כפר (ko per); זפת (tseh pet)) An inflammable viscous mineral sub-
stance, a more or less liquid mixture of hydrocarbon. In the visitation of
Edom, the streams shall be turned into pitch and the land into burning
pitch.
PITCHER (גלגל (ga leg gal), wheel (Ecclesiastes 12); גביע (gaw be yah), cup
(Jeremiah 35); נבלי חרש (nee beh lay kheh resh), earthen bottle
(Lamentations 4); keramion (keh rah mee on) (Mark 14, Luke 22).
PITFALL (שבכה (seh baw kaw), net; skandalon (skan da lon), stumbling
block; King James Version translates both as “snare”) A figurative term
referring to a hidden or unrecognized danger or error or to an unavoidable
hardship into which persons fall.
PITHOM (פתם) A city in Egypt
raohs of Exodus. The biblical narrative itself does not localize Pithom,
so all modern attempts to identify it are based on archaeological discove-
ries, sources outside the Bible, or both. Only 2 cities are good candidates,
both are in Egypt’s eastern Delta.
The first, Tell el-Maskhutah was excavated in 1883. According to
the excavator, all the regional names found on the monuments correspond
to otherwise attested place names in the 8th Egyptian nome or district,
notable Tkw(t), the civil name of its capital, and Pr-tm (“house of Tem”),
its religious name. A Latin inscription mentions Ero (an obscure god
linked to Tem), which is to be equated with Heroonpolis, which is a rough
translation of Pr-tm. The architectural remains are to be seen as those of
a fortress and of store chambers.
Another scholar opposes this view. His opposition rests on the facts
that the testimony of the hieroglyphic inscriptions shows clearly that Pr-tm
and Tkw(t) are quite distinct, and that the Latin milestone states that Tell
el-Maskhutah is over 14 km from Ero, on the way to Clysma. Also, archa-
eological evidence elsewhere doesn't support the interpretation of the 1st
site’s remains as anything more than the same, normal foundations that
are found elsewhere in Egypt.
On the basis of this, a second site is proposed: Tell el-Ratabah,
some 16 km to the west of the first site. Little more is known of this se-
cond site, sufficient proof was found that the site had been occupied as
early as the Middle Kingdom. Clearly, no positive identification of
Pithom-Heroonpolis-Hero can be made until a more careful examination
of the sites in question is made.
PITHON (פיתון, from root “to be spread open”) A descendant of Saul, and son
of Micah (I Chr. 8, 9).
PITY. See Mercy.
PLAGUE (מגפה (mah gay faw), pestilence; נגע (nay gah’), infliction of evil)
Although plague and pestilence are frequently associated as descriptions
of a severe epidemic disease, there appear to be good reasons for distin-
guishing between them.
In I Samuel 5-6 the Philistine defeat of Israel and the capture of
the ark was followed by a plague of heavy mortality which sounded like
bubonic plague, conveyed to people by the rat flea. It is interesting that
the Philistine diviners associated the outbreak with the presence of ro-
dents. The dramatic destruction of Sennacherib’s forces was attributed
by Herodotus to rodents gnawing the Assyrian bowstrings. The pre-
sence of rodents would indicate the possibility of bubonic plague as the
material destructive agency.
PLAGUES IN EXODUS. A series of natural disasters which fell upon Egypt
ment upon Egypt. They are later repeatedly referred to in the liturgi-
cal celebration of the Exodus as the marvelous works of Yahweh.
The concentration of miracles in the Exodus period among others is
biblical testimony to God’s special and powerful activity. Time and space
so separate us from biblical people that it is impossible to recreate com-
pletely the situations they faced and interpreted. With regard to Exodus
“signs,” it can be stated that they are Egyptian in type and that their ori-
gins were from a people which had unusual experiences in that country.
P-82
The 1st 9 plagues were explained as natural scourges known in
historical times and were troublesome in Egypt at the time of Exodus be-
tween late summer and the following spring. After the Nile reaches its
highest inundation by August, it is said that the water often becomes a
dull red from micro-organisms. A plague of frogs has a number of histo-
rical witnesses, with dead frogs giving rise to insect pests. Hail, locusts,
and severe sandstorms are known in plague proportions. Evidence
shows such that a natural basis for plague traditions must be assumed.
Yet it would be a mistake to assume that the Exodus' present form
of plague tradition can be entirely rationalized based on evidence given
above. Use in worship has given form and heightened theological con-
tent to the traditions, though one must beware of the temptation to as-
sume that the cult invented the traditions that it celebrated and interpreted.
Literary History—Literary criticism has separated at least 2 plague
traditions, the Y(J)ahwist (J) strata containing 7 scourges and the Priestly
(P) strata 10. Psalm 78 appears to preserve J's list of 7, while Psalm 105
seems to be based on P (See Table on next page). It should noted, P pro-
vides no independent account of every plague; his work edits and supple-
ments the combined J and Elohwist (E; JE) strata.
In JE, Moses is the chief actor; in P, on the other hand, Aaron is the
chief actor. P’s typical literary formula is: “Then Yahweh said to Moses,
'Say to Aaron, ‘Stretch out your rod . . .’ Aaron stretched out his hand . . .
The magicians tried their secret arts . . . But the Pharaoh’s heart was har-
dened . . .”; for P the events are specifically “signs and wonders. The
Egyptian magicians are able to duplicate the feats of Moses in the first
2 wonders but later fail and have to admit that to Pharaoh.
In the older JE narrative there are clear differences in conception
and presentation. The J part uses the formula: “Go to Pharaoh and say
to him, ‘Thus says Yahweh, Let my people go, that they may serve me.
if you refuse to let them go, behold, I will . . . And Yahweh did so . . .
Then Pharaoh called Moses and said, ‘Entreat Yahweh to remove . . .’
Then Moses went out from Pharaoh and prayed to Yahweh. And Yah-
weh did according to the word of Moses and . . . But Pharaoh hardened
his heart, and did not let the people go.” In JE Moses is the central ac-
tor, without any mention of Aaron or his rod.
There still remain certain passages, however, which don’t fit easily
in either the P or J sections, and these are seen as E. They appear in the
1st, 7th, 8th, and 10th plagues. In them the most distinctive feature is the
use of the rod in bringing on the plague, but it is stretched out by Moses,
rather than Aaron. Only in the case of darkness does Moses stretch forth
his hand. Finally, it is felt that the E passages describe the Israelites as
neighbors of the Egyptians, whereas J seems to consider them as living
apart in Goshen (See the following Comparative Study of the Plagues of
Egypt).
Comparative Study of the
Plagues of Egypt
J=J(Y)ahwist; E=Elohist; P=Priestly
Exodus 7:8-12:30 Hebrew Greek Literary source
Water to blood נחפכו דם aima J: 7: 14-15a, 16-18, 21a, 23-5
(neh kheh (ay ee ma) E: 7:15b, 17b, 20b
peh ko dawm) P: 7:19-20a, 21b-22
Frogs צפר דעים batracoiV J: 8:1-4, 15a
(tseh fer (bah tra koys) P: 8: 5-7, 15b
day eem)
Gnats כנם skui feV P: 8: 16-19
(kin eem) (skoo ee fes)
Flies ערב kunomuian J: 8: 20-32
(‘aw robe) (kie no my eean)
Plague דבר qanatoV J: 9: 1-7
(deb ber) (thah na tos)
P-83
J=J(Y)ahwist; E=Elohist; P=Priestly
Exodus 7:8-12:30 Hebrew Greek Literary source
Ulcer שחין fluktideV P: 9: 8-12
Ulcer שחין fluktideV P: 9: 8-12
(shekh een) (flook tee des)
Hail ברד calaxa J: 9:13-21, 23b, 24b
(baw rawd) (ka laks ah) E: 9: 22-23a, 24a, 25a, 35
Locustsארבה akrida J: 10: 1-11, 13b, 14b-19, 24-26
(ah re beh) (ak reed a) E: 10: 12-13a, 14a, 15b, 20
Darkness חשך skotoV E: 10: 21-23, 27
(kha shek) (sco tos)
Deaths of מַכַּת (ma
koth J: (11:4-8; 12:21-27, 29ff.
first-borns בְּכוֹרוֹת bek oh roth) E: 11: 1-3
P: 11:9-10; 12 1-20, 28
Deaths of Qanatos
atto (Tha na tos at toe
first-borns (in Greek) Πρωτογέννητοι pro gen neh toy)
Plague J Preserved in Psalm 78: P Preserved Psalm 105:
Water to blood vs. 44 vs. 29
Frogs vs. 45 vs. 30
Gnats vs. 31
Flies vs. 45 vs. 31
Plague cattle killed by hail, no harm to cattle
flocks by lightning
Ulcer
Water to blood vs. 44 vs. 29
Frogs vs. 45 vs. 30
Gnats vs. 31
Flies vs. 45 vs. 31
Plague cattle killed by hail, no harm to cattle
flocks by lightning
Ulcer
Hail vs. 48 vs. 32
Locusts vs. 46 vs. 34
Darkness vs. 28
Death of the first-born vs. 51 vs. 36
The passages in question are too fragmentary to make it certain that
a third document is present. It is only when E has been more clearly deli-
neated elsewhere that similar passages here can be assigned to E. This is
why scholars differon what precisely belongs to E in Exodus 7-12. Some
scholars feel that the evidence is clear in the plague narrative that an as-
sumption of 3 distinct, independent, parallel documents cannot explain the
phenomena. They are best explained as additions and alterations made at
various times as the material was used in the yearly Passover festival, ra-
ther than as fragments from parallel tales. With this in mind, they may be
seen as oral traditions that were around a long time before they had a fixed
written form.
While J and E may have been independent before the fall of Israel
in 721 B.C., they are so close together they must be presumed to have
been derived from a common source. Neither E or P is now known as an
independent source; they are both simply supplementations and expan-
sions of J. Such a view would explain how the J list of 7 plagues was ex-
panded to 10 from other traditions.
PLAIN (הﬠבק (bek ‘ah), valley; ככר (kik kawr), surrounding lands מישור
(mee shore), ערבה (‘ar rah bah), desert) A word used in English to de-
signate several slightly differing types of level terrain.
Bek’ah refers to the plain in Babylonia between the Tigris and Eu-
phrates, and also probably the Sharon Plain. Kikkar is used to refer to
the level terrain near Jericho, to the area on both sides of the Jordan River,
and possibly to plateaus in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Mishor is frequently
used to designate plains, without indicating their specific locations. ‘Arra-
bah is rendered “plain” when it designates the territory of Moab; when
used for the level area near the Dead Sea, the New Revised Standard Ver-
sion spells it out.
PLANE (מקציה (me keh tsie yeh), from the root meaning “scrape off”) A car-
penter’s instrument; used in connection with the manufacture of a wooden
idol (Isaiah 44).
P-84
PLANE TREE (ערמון (‘ar mon), King James Version (KJV) translates as
“chestnut”; תדהר (tid har), KJV translates as “Pine”) A tree distin-
guished by its large leaves, shedding bark, and spreading branches. Ja-
cob uses branches of this tree as part of his scheme to trick Laban (Ge-
nesis 30); Ezekiel likens Pharaoh to this tree (Ezekiel 30). Identifica-
tion of this tree with the plane tree is generally accepted on the basis of
the Primary Greek Old Testament. The KJV use of “chestnut” does not
fit the contexts at all. The tidhar in Isaiah 41 and 60 appears in contexts
that seem to require a conifer.
PLANK (לוח (lokh), tablet; קרש (kaw resh); ﬢﬧש (seh dar), meaning uncer-
tain) Lokh is the term used for the planking of a Tyrian ship (Ezekiel 27).
Qaresh in its plural form is used for the acacia wood frames used in the
tabernacle (Exodus 26). Sedaroth in plural form is used for the cedar in
the temple ceiling (I Kings 6), but the meaning of the word is uncertain.
themselves; it is not used in the common technical sense of the English
term.
PLANTS It may seem surprising that the number of plant names mentioned in
the Bible isn't much over 100 while the Bible land's flora comprises around
2300 species. Actually, it is understandable that many common or even
useful trees, shrubs, ornamental plants, and edible herbs, find no mention
in the Scriptures. Not only agriculture is involved in or illuminated by this
plant life, but also religion, customs, law, commerce, manufacturing, archi-
tecture, medicine, sanitation, cosmetics, and even love.
List of Topics—1. Plant Name Frequency; Translating
Hebrew Names; Palestinian-Syria Pre-history; 2. Man and
Plants: Wild; Cultivated; Agricultural
3. Vegetation Habitats: a. The Aleppo Jerusalem
pine forest; b. Evergreen oak maquis and forest; c. Deci-
duous broad-leaved oak forest; d. Evergreen park woods; e. Evergreen Mediterranean dwarf shrub formation; f. De-
ciduous steppe forest; g. Tamarisk woods; h. The ripa-
rian forest; i. The Saxaul forest; j. Sagebrush steppes; k. Succulent shrub desert; l. Swamps and marshes;
m. Sand-dune vegetation; n. Vegetation of tropical oases
4. Cereal and Legumes: a. Wheat; b. Emmer; c. Barley; d. Millet; e. Beans; f. Lentils
5. Fruit Trees: a. Almond; b. Apple; c. Fig;
d. Husks; e. Mulberry; f. Nuts; g. Olive; h. Palm;
i. Pomegranate; j. Sycomore; k. Vine
6. Vegetables and Gourds: a. Onions; b. Garlic;
c. Leek; d. Melon; e. Cucumber; f. Flax; g. Cotton
7. Spices and condiments: a. Coriander; b. Dill; c. Fitches; d. Cummin; e. Mint; e. Mint; f. Mustard; g. Saffron
8. Balms, Drugs, and Incense; a. Aloes; b. Balm; c. Bdellium; d. Henna; e. Cane, Sweet Cane; f. Cassia; g. Cinnamon; h. Galbanum; i. Incense, Frankincense;
j. Myrrh; k. Spikenard, Nard; l. Spices
9. Costly Timbers; a. Ebony; b. Gopher;
c. Algum, Almug
10. Forest Trees and Shrubs: a. Acacia tree; b. Bay
tree; c. Bush, Thornbush; d. Cedar; f. Fir, Fir Tree; g. Heath; h. Juniper; i. Laurel;
l. Myrtle; m. Oil Tree, Wild Olive; n. Oak; o. Plane
Tree; p. Storax Tree; q. Tamarisk; r. Terebinth, Turpen-
tine Tree; s. Thick Tree; t. Willow;
11. Reeds and Rushes: a. Reed; b. Rush, Papyrus,
Bulrushes; c. Cattail; d. Rush, Bulrush, Hook Caldron; e. Flag, Meadow, Reeds
12. Thorns and Thistles; a. Thorn; b. Brambles, Thorns; c. Brier; d. Thistle
13. Weeds and Nettles: a. Nettle; b. Wheel, Rolling
Thing, Whirling Dust; c. Cockle; d. Tares
14. Wormwoods and Poisons: a. Gall, Hemlock;
b. Wormwood; c. Bitter Herbs; d. Wild Gourds
15. Other Plants: a. Gourd; b. Capper; c. Man-
drake; d. Manna
85
1. Plant Name Frequency; Translating Hebrew; Palestinian-
Syria Pre-history—The frequency of the mention of plant names in the
Bible is not always in proportion to their use and distribution. For exam-
ple, the cedar, which has never been native in Palestine, appears 70 times
in the Bible, while the wheat plant is mentioned only 32 times. The iden-
tification of plant names is a difficult task, which unfortunately has not
always been successfully done.
The degree of success falls into 3 categories: a.) those unanimous-
ly identifiable; b.) those which need further study before identification
can be made; c.) those for which there seems to be no hope that accurate
identification can be made. The last group is quite considerable in num-
ber, and there is much confusion, inconsistency, and controversy among
biblical scholars. Most names have a collective or general meaning, and
do not denote specific plants.
Besides linguistic methods of research, the plant lore of the Bible
requires an adequate knowledge of the local flora in order to avoid many
mistranslations, such as translating Hebrew words using names of plants
which have never been native to or grown in Palestine, such as rye, heath,
box trees, cockles, tares, teil trees, and chestnuts. We will begin with a
brief description of prehistoric plant life.
Long before the advent of humans, the Palestine-Syrian part of the
eastern Mediterranean was detached from the northern part of this region
by a wide arm of the ancient Mediterranean Sea, which extended deep into
Asia. Palestine was governed by a tropical climate. Later, the tropical
flora was decimated, and only remnants of it were pushed down to the hot
areas of the Jordan Valley. The Mediterranean Sea lost its sizable eastern
branch, which allowed migration of plants and animals from the north.
This left the area with 3 major geographical territories in regards to plants:
Mediterranean; Iranian; and Saharan.
2. Man and Plants: Wild; Cultivated; Agricultural—The rela-
tions between man and the plant world around him were intimate from the
very first appearance of humans on the earth. Humans found their food,
clothes, and shelter in this world of plants. This article will limit itself to
mentioning only the aspects of: humans and trees; humans and native
plants; humans and weeds; and cultivation of plants.
In biblical times and thereafter, trees have played a big role in the
human's daily and spiritual life. Adoration of trees, symbolizing trees with
might and godliness, repeatedly occurs in the Bible. "Holy trees" and sa-
cred forests abound in Palestine. In contrast with this great respect for
trees is the widespread destruction of forests wrought by man through the
cutting of trees, through grazing by goats and sheep, and through fires.
Being close to deserts made forests liable to heavy damage by the
Bedouins. Continuous browsing of goats damaged the bud-bearing bran-
ches and deformed the trees into shrubs. In areas with deep soils, forests
have been exterminated; while in areas with rocky ground, large woods
have been left behind. The use of native plants by humans for food and
other daily requirements, common everywhere in the present, was much
commoner in older days. Hundreds of native species are used by the na-
tives for food and other purposes. These were certainly more numerous in
biblical times. Wild grains were collected for preparing "wild bread."
P-86
Plants of the reeds and rushes type have been used since ancient
times up to the present day as fiber and wicker plants. Among a number
of wild plants, known and used for their yield of oil are charlock, black
mustard, garden rocket, and castor bean. There are also many tannin and
dye plants which have been widely used in the past. A few of the wild
plants used in folk medicine include rue, fragrant milfoil, and wild gourd.
Mention should also be made of numerous pasture plants native to the Pa-
lestine flora. There is an abundance of honey plants, which enable heavy
honey yields in 2 or 3 seasons of the year.
The origin of cultivated plants is one of the most interesting chapters
of human civilization, but the time and place of the first plant cultivation is
as yet unknown. What is certain is that cultivation was preceded by a long
period of collecting and storing of wild-growing plants (In present-day agri-
culture, sowing and collecting still exist side by side.). Humans had to in-
vest a lot of intellectual effort to convert wild plants into cultivated crop
plants through selection and breeding.
Palestine’s flora includes a number of species identical with, or close
to, wild varieties of some cultivated plants; among them are almonds, bar-
ley, beans, olive, wheat, peas, and garlic. The occurrence of these plants
in Palestine points to the assumption that the ancient population might
have contributed to the formation of some cultivated plants. The earliest
data on Palestinian agriculture come to us from the Mesolithic or Middle
Stone age (around 8000 B.C.). In the Neolithic-Chalcolithic (5000-3000),
Palestine's agriculture was according to some sources, rather developed
and had some irrigation. From the Early Bronze Period (around 3000-
2000) many findings of seeds and kernels testify to the existence of a com-
paratively high level of agriculture.
Along with cultivated plants, there are about 450 species of weeds
occurring among cultivated crops in Palestine. Some weeds have been
unintentionally imported along with crop seeds, and part moved in from
the neighboring steppes. The richness of this weed flora is, no doubt, the
result of the antiquity of agriculture. Weed seeds have been found in exca-
vations belonging to the Bronze Age (3000-2000 B.C.). Weed control has
always been so unsuccessful that people have long looked upon weeds as
a plague of God. Being helpless to remove them from their fields, farmers
sometimes had to harvest the weeds instead of the sown crop.
For the Middle and Late Bronze period (2000-1200 B.C.), as well as
for the Early Iron period (1200-586 B.C.) we have the Bible as a source.
By then, Palestine had agriculture which included many different crops.
Dry farming, as well as irrigation crops, was well known. Along with
wheat, emmer, and barley, the main field crops, lentils, broad beans, and
flax were also grown. Millet or sorghum were grown as summer crops.
Fruit tree orchards and vineyards were highly developed. Among them
were the vine, olive, fig, sycamore, date, almond, pomegranate, and proba-
bly also the apricot and the mulberry.
The Late Iron period (600-300 B.C.) and the subsequent Greek peri-
od was an era in which agricultural development reached a standard consi-
derably higher than in the following Roman-Byzantine and Arabic periods.
New introductions for summer crops were rice, sesame, and probably cow-
peas. Carrots, beets, cabbages, radishes, artichokes and some spices
were added to the vegetable garden. New orchard plants were pears,
quinces, pistachio, ethrog, celtis, and other undefined varieties.
During the Arabic period very little was added to agricultural tech-
nique. The banana, the sugar cane, and probably some new vegetables
were introduced in this period. But agriculture, in general, was in its de-
cline. Many flourishing villages of the past turned into "tells" (ruin
mounds), bearing the ancient name of the sites. Under the Turkish rule,
there is nothing to add except that of the cultivation of citrus trees, pro-
bably in the 1500s. With the beginning of Jewish immigration, a stream
of new plants and modern techniques flowed into Palestine. This ever-in-
creasing trend toward modernization and rationalization of agriculture is
now about to overshadow older achievements and to eliminate ancient
crops from the country.
3. Vegetation Habitats—When humans first appeared in Palestine
there was already a diversity of vegetation habitats. This article will give
a brief description of each of the 14 habitats before listing the individual
plants. The habitats include many plants not mentioned in the Bible or
found on the list given in this article.
a. The Aleppo Jerusalem
thernmost pine forests of the Northern Hemisphere. The dominating tree
is the Aleppo or Jerusalem pine. Other trees and shrubs included in this
forest are pistacia bush, strawberry tree, ladanum bush, and others. At
present it covers considerable areas on Mount Carmel, in Samaria, and in
Gilead, while remnants of it exist in Galilee and Judea.
P-87
b. Evergreen oak maquis and forest—The 2 dominating plants,
whether they be primarily trees, as in a forest, or mainly shrubs, as in a
maquis, are the common evergreen oak and the terebinth. This is the most
common wood formation in Palestine. The other plants found here are the
strawberry tree, storax tree, Judas tree, laurel tree, hawthorn bush, and
buckthorn bush. This wood community is widely distributed all over the
eastern Mediterranean mountain ranges on both sides of the Jordan. It
only grows above 275 meters.
c. Deciduous broad-leaved oak forest—This type is dominated
by the Tabor oak, & has three centers in Palestine
forest which begins at the southern slopes of Mount Carmel and goes to
the Yarkon River. The Samarian-Galilean type is the most widespread;
the storax tree, terebinth tree, hawthorn bush, and Judas Tree grow along
with the oak in this area. And the Bashan forest is characterized by the
Atlantic terebinth, which grows along with the oaks on the western slopes
of Bashan, Golan, and Gilead; one of its remnants is the "sacred forest" of
the Dan Valley. From the look of these mighty oaks and terebinths, it is
readily understood why these trees have been so proverbially admired in
the Bible.
d. Evergreen park woods—This is a wood community of mainly
pistacia bushes and carob trees. It occupies large stretches on the wes-
tern side of the Jordan, along the western foothill region, and on consoli-
dated sand dunes, to mention just a few places. It is limited to lower
altitudes.
e. Evergreen Mediterranean dwarf shrub formation—In places
where the forest and larger shrub communities are destroyed, low-lying
shrubs occupy the area. The leading plants of these communities are
thorny burnet, ladanum, sage, and others. It is only on the Mediterranean
territory's eastern and southern borders that these communities are the
final stage of plant development.
f. Deciduous steppe forest—This type is characterized by its re-
motely scattered trees and by the semi- desert shrubs or herbs. In eastern
Gilead this forest type is made up of mighty and aged Atlantic Terebinths.
g. Tamarisk woods—Only a few of the many species of tamarisk
form woods. The most important habitat for this type is the saline soil
near the Dead Sea.
h. The riparian forest—This consists of a few plant communities
on riverbanks, such as that dominated by the Plane Tree in the country's
northern part. The Yarkon and other rivers have willows by them, while
Euphrates poplars form thickets on the banks of the Jordan River.
i. The Saxaul forest—This community has its southwest represen-
tative in the Arabah Valley
reaches a height of 3 to 3.6 meter and grows on sand dunes.
j. Sagebrush steppes—These are represented in the Judean De-
by white wormwood.
k. Succulent shrub desert—This communities is dominated by
dwarf shrubs, with fleshy leaves or stems. They form the vegetation in the
extreme deserts of Palestine. The plants there include bean caper, jointed
anabasis, sea blite, and chenolea.
l. Swamps and marshes—There are 2 main water plants-centers
in Palestine Jordan Valley
the Upper Jordan Valley abound with various plant communities. The lea-
ding plants are papyrus, reeds, knotweed, Eurasian yellow flag, and cat-
tails. On the Coastal Plain’s river banks, most of the plants just men-
tioned, plus prickly sea rush, clammy inula, and bramble dominate.
m. Sand-dune vegetation—Among the plant communities of the
coastal sand dunes, the most conspicuous are those dominated by mar-
ram grass, sand wormwood, white broom, and knotweed. They were all
evergreen, deep-rooting shrubs or grasses, which withstand salt spray and
the moving of sand by the wind.
n. Vegetation of tropical oases—At the outlet regions of the per-
manent water currents in the Lower Jordan Valley Dead Sea shore,
and the Arava Valley
up of common acacia, toothbrush tree, Christ thorn, Jericho
ban trees among others. The major vegetation types listed above existed
in Palestine since very ancient times, including the biblical era. The follo-
wing is a list of important biblical plants and a brief description of each.
(See also the individual entries for each plant.)
4. Cereal and Legumes:
a. Wheat—(חטה (khit taw); sitoV (si tos)) One of the most im-
portant field crops of Palestine since the Early Bronze Age (3300-2000
B.C.) and probably earlier is wheat. Wild-growing wheat is supposed to be
the wild ancestor of some cultivated wheats. Its origin is western and cen-
tral Asia. Its general area of cultivation extends throughout the warm tem-
perate and subtropical regions. Wheat is used in flour for baking. It was
also used as a cereal offering. Wheat is sown with the first winter rains or
before, and is harvested in June or July.
P-88
b. Emmer—(סמתכ( koos seh meth), spelt) There's no evidence
that rye and spelt were grown in biblical times in Palestine
been found in Egyptian tombs. Emmer is a kind of wheat, with dense ears
and a brittle spine. Emmer is inferior to durum wheat; its growth require-
ments are more modest than wheat’s.
c. Barley—(השעור (seh ‘oh rah)) One of the most ancient
cereals, known to have been grown in Palestine and elsewhere since the
Early Bronze Age (3300-2000). Barley is extensively cultivated in Pale-
stine as a winter crop. It is harvested in May. It is less demanding than
wheat and thrives well under drier conditions.
d. Millet— (דחן (do khan)) This is an annual grass. The minute
almost globular grains are an excellent forage, but are also eaten by peo-
ple as porridge or bread.
e. Beans— (פול (pole)) This plant is the common broad bean,
grown in gardens and in fields of Palestine
known since the Bronze Age (3300-2000) and is eaten roasted or boiled.
The large pods contain several seeds; the origin of broad beans is not
certain.
f. Lentils— (עדשים (‘aw daw sheem)) Identification of the
lentil is certain. This is an annual plant, with a slender stem and feather-
like leaves; the flowers are whitish and violet-striped. Lentils have been
grown as a field crop in Palestine and adjacent countries since very an-
cient times. They are mainly cooked as porridge.
5. Fruit Trees
a. Almond—(שקד (shaw kad)) Identification of this tree is cer-
tain. The almond almond tree is 2.4 to 6.1 meters tall and sheds its leaves
in winter. The flowers are large, and their color is white to pink. The al-
mond is at the center of a fleshy fruit. The almond tree grows wild in Pale-
stine, Syria, and other Near East countries. The Israelites adopted the al-
mond branch as a model of the tabernacle's lamp stand.
b. Apple— (תפוח (tap poo khah)) The apple isn't a common fruit
in Palestine
cot is the most plausible. The apricot is 3.7 to 6.1 meters tall; its spreading
branches and dense foliage afford a lot of shade. It blossoms in the spring
with white-pinkish flowers, and is a common fruit tree in Palestine. There
is no clear evidence that it was in Palestine during biblical times.
c. Fig—(תאנה (teh ay naw); sukh (sou kay)) The fig tree is one
of the most popular fruit trees which together with the vine typified free-
dom and prosperity at the time of the Bible. It was a deciduous tree, 3.1 to
6.1 meters tall, with large leaves and tiny flowers. The fig tree has been
cultivated since ancient times in Mediterranean and Western Asian coun-
tries.
It is held in high esteem, because of its delicious fruit and heavy
shade. It produces 2 crops: winter figs, occurring on leafless twigs, are
small, hard and not edible; the summer figs, which ripen from the middle to
the end of the summer, and are the only usable crop. In the past the wild
fig tree, the caprifig, has been used to pollinate certain varieties of the true
fig tree.
d. Husks—(keration (ker at ee on)) It's generally believed to
be the pods of the carob tree. It is an evergreen tree, 3.1 to 6.1 meters
high. It flowers mainly in late summer; the flowers are yellowish-green.
The fruits, which ripen around 10 months after flowering, are dark brown
fleshy pods, 10.2 cm to 20.3 cm. long. A syrup and a kind of honey are
prepared from the pulp. Some believe that the "honey" in some passages
of the Old Testament refers to the husks of the carob tree.
e. Mulberry—(בכאים (bah kah ‘eem)) Actually, the use of "mul-
berry" to translate this word in II Samuel, I Chronicles, and Psalm 84 is not
based on any hard evidence. There is no evidence to believe that this
name refers to any plant. The sycamine tree in Luke 17 is more likely to be
a mulberry tree, as translated in the King James Version. The black mul-
berry is deciduous, 3 to 6 meters tall, with a broad crown and large leaves.
f. Nuts—(בטנים (bo teh neem), pistachio; אגוז (‘eg oze), wal-
nut) "Nut" is the English word used to translate these words. The 1st word,
botenim, is mostly likely the pistachio in Genesis 43; they are commonly
eaten fresh or roasted. The nut or 'egoz of Song of Solomon is the walnut.
It is a handsome tree with a broad hemispherical crown. The fruit has a
fleshy outer skin, containing a tannin substance, while the inner stone con-
tains a folded seed. According to the Roman-Jewish historian Josephus,
walnuts were widely cultivated then.
g. Olive—(זית (zah yith); elaia (el ah yah)) The olive tree was the
most important fruit and oil tree of Palestine in biblical times, and prior to
that period; olive kernels were found in Megiddo from the Bronze Age
(3200-2000 B.C.), It is an evergreen tree, 3.1 to 4.6 meters high with a
thick, gnarled, and often twisted trunk. It reaches an age of several hun-
dred years, and some trees are estimated to be over 1,000 years old. The
small white flowers appear generally in May. The fruit ripens 5 or 6
months after flowering. At full maturity the green color of the fruit turns
black. The pulp of the fruit contains about 50% oil.
P-89
Ancient oil presses are found abundantly even among natural fo-
rests. Oil was used in diet, as fuel, in medicine, in sacrificial offering, per-
fumery, and possibly in soap manufacture. The hard wood is hardly wor-
kable and, thus, scarcely used for building and manufacture. Because of
its very ancient cultivation, the origin of the olive tree is still unknown.
h. Palm—(תמר (to mer)) This is the date palm; it is generally
12.2 to 18.9 meters tall. The trunk is simple, unbranched; the featherlike
leaves reach a length of 1.2 to 1.8 meters. The fruit is a one-seeded berry
about 5 cm long; it contains a lot of sugar and is very nutritive. The date
palm’s origin is as yet not well known.
Apart from the fruits, which were eaten fresh, dried, and in the form
of cakes, other parts of the tree were also used: the trunk supplied timber,
the young flowering shoots yielded a sort of wine, and from the fibers of
the leaves robes were woven. The palm was respected by the ancients as
a tree of pride and grace.
i. Pomegranate—(רמון, rim mone)) This is a deciduous tree up to
3.7 meters tall; the young leaves are reddish. The large, showy red-scarlet
flowers appear in summer. The fruit is as large as an orange; it has a lea-
thery, yellow-to-purple rind; the fruit and seed are edible. In addition to the
fruit’s common use, wine is also made from the juice, and the fruit’s rind is
used in dyeing and leather tanning; the fruit is a symbol of plenty.
j. Sycomore—(םשקמי (sih keh meem); sukomorea (sic oh mor
ee ah)) This species has nothing in common with North American syca-
mores. The Bible’s sycamore is a strong tree as much as 9 meters tall; it
lived several hundred years. The figs are roughly globular in shape,
much smaller and inferior in taste and sugar than those of the fig tree.
Coastal Plain people cultivated this tree for its fruit. The prophet Amos
had the job of piercing the early fruit with a nail to accelerate ripening
before he became a prophet. The sycomore wood is known for its dura-
bility; mummy coffins made of it have been found in old Egyptian tombs.
k. Vine—(גפן (gheh fen); ampeloV (am pel os)) The grapevine is
one of the most ancient of cultivated plants. Its cultivation dates back in
Palestine to the Early Bronze Age (3200-2000 B.C.). In biblical times,
the grapevine was one of the most important plants in economical and
cultural life.
The grapevine is a trailing or climbing shrub with very long bran-
ches. It blossoms in the spring; the flowers are small, and greenish.
There are hundreds of varieties of vine, differing from one another by
shape, taste, sugar contents, color and other characteristics. In Palestine,
the vine was and is still cultivated in most climates, with special varieties
for each zone. The grapes are eaten fresh or dried (raisins), but more
often they become juice and wine. The vine was a symbol of peace, ferti-
lity, and prosperity, and a national emblem.
6. Vegetables and Gourds
a. Onions—(בצלים (beh tsel yeem)) The common onion is a
member of the lily family. It is a perennial herb with a large underground
bulb, composed of several fleshy coats. In Palestine, it has been intro-
duced from Egypt, where it is known from very ancient times.
b. Garlic—(שומים (shoo meem)) Garlic is a perennial herb of the
lily family, with a subterranean bulb composed of a number of smaller
bulbs or cloves. It is grown everywhere in gardens, mainly as a culinary
seasoning. The garlic is rather popular with the people of the Near East.
c. Leek—(חציר (khaw tseer), grass, hay, green herbs) Leek is a
tall herb resembling garlic; it has a more elongated bulb and longer leaves;
its bulb and leaves are used in cookery. Egyptian leeks have prehistoric
origins.
d. Melon—(אבטהים (ab at heem)) This is the plant commonly
named watermelon. It is an annual plant grown in summer. The fleshy,
juicy pulp is aromatic and refreshing, and is widely served in Palestine and
elsewhere. It has been grown in the Near Eastern countries since ancient
times, and has its origin in Africa.
e. Cucumber—(קשואים (kish
lieved that the Hebrew name denotes the common cucumber, there is no
evidence that this species was grown in biblical times in Egypt
there is evidence that the musk melon, which is delicious enough that the
Israelites could have longed for it in the desert, was grown in Egypt since
prehistoric times.
f. Flax—(פשתה (pish taw); linon (lee non)) The identification of
this plant is certain. The manufacture of linen from flax was known before
biblical times. Flax is a tender annual plant, 2 or 3 feet high, with narrow
leaves and blue or whitish flowers. The fruit contains oil-bearing seeds.
The oil is used as food and in the paint industry. There are 2 groups of flax
varieties: one is grown for oil, the other for fibers.
P-90
g. Cotton—(כרפס (kar pas)) The oriental cotton seems to have
been a very ancient crop in Persia India
west. It is doubtful that it was cultivated in Palestine in biblical times.
Cotton is an annual or perennial plant with large lobed leaves, and showy
flowers. The fruit is a capsule containing several seeds, beset with a
dense cover of long white hairs, which are the cotton fibers.
7. Spices and condiments
a. Coriander—(גד (gad)) This is an annual plant 30 to 60 cm high,
with white flowers. The fruits are used as a condiment and are sown by
the Arabs in the vegetable gardens, often together with dill. It is also
known as a medicinal plant, at present rather obsolete.
b. Dill—(קצח (keh tsakh), fitches (King James Version), black
cummin; anhqon (an ay thon)) Dill was grown in ancient times. It is an
annual plant, about 40 cm high. The fruits are flattened with marginal
wings. It is chiefly used for flavoring pickles, but it also yields an ethe-
real oil used in medicine.
c. Fitches—This Old English word is used twice in the King James
Version, in Isaiah 28 and Ezekiel 4 to translate 2 different Hebrew words.
In both cases they are mistranslations. In Isaiah, the Hebrew refers to
either nutmeg or black coriander, which is an annual plant about 30 cm
high, with dissected leaves and handsome blue-white flowers. The seeds
are used in oriental and East European countries along with cummin as a
condiment. In Ezekiel, the Hebrew word refers to emmer (See Cereal and
Legumes section of this article.).
d. Cummin—(כמן (kam mone); kuminon (koo min on)) This is an
annual plant 30 to 60 cm high. The small flowers are pink to white. Cum-
min is cultivated for the seeds, used as flavor in liquors, cakes, and bread.
e. Mint—(hdusmon (ay doos mon)) This plant was probably grown
for flavoring because of the strongly aromatic odor of the leaves and flo-
wers. 3 species are native to Palestine, and none of them is cultivated.
f. Mustard—(sinapi (sin ap ee)) The Black Mustard plant is
known to have been cultivated for oil secured from the seeds. In Palestine,
it is at present one of the most common weeds, outgrowing and overshado-
wing surrounding plants. Its small, linear pods contain small, blackish
seeds, which Jesus refers to in Matt. 13.
g. Saffron—(כרכום (kar kome)) It is not clear whether this name
from the Song of Songs [Solomon] is for the saffron crocus or the turmeric
plant. The saffron crocus isn't native to Palestine, although it may have
been grown there once. It is a small bulbous plant with narrow leaves and
a stalk bearing showy flowers. Saffronis from the stigma and the stigma’s
stem, which are picked out, dried, and pounded into small cakes.
8. Balms, Drugs, and Incense
a. Aloes—(אהלות (‘ay haw loth); alon (ah lone), eagle-
wood) This Hebrew word is identified as eaglewood by most modern
commentators. It's a tropical tree native to Southern Asia. It has a
fragrant wood and is used as incense and also in medicine and perfumery.
b. Balm—(צרי (tsor ee)) The Jericho balsam is a tropical tree ra-
ther common in the oases of the Dead Sea surroundings and the Lower
Jordan Valley. The fruit resembles a small plum and contains oil, which
is used by the Arabs for healing various kinds of illness. This tree doesn't
fit the context, because in Genesis, a tree was sent as a gift to Egypt,
which already has this tree.
c. Bdellium—(בדולח (bed oh lakh)) There is disagreement whe-
ther this word even refers to a plant.
d. Henna—(כפר (ko fer)) This word is used in the Song of Songs
[Solomon]; many identify it with the henna tree, which is grown in many
Arabic countries for its sweet scented, white flowers and for its "henna" or
dye. The dye can be yellow, orange, or red, and is prepared from the
crushed leaves mixed with water. This dye is commonly used by Arab
women in cosmetics. How far "henna" was used as a cosmetic among the
Hebrews is unknown, although cosmetics in general seem to have been ra-
ther common during biblical times.
e. Cane, Sweet Cane—(קנה בשם (kaw neh bo sem)) A few
allied species of plant may be involved in this name. These plants are
perennial grasses, and they produce sweet-scented, volatile oils (among
them ginger-grass oil, citronella oil, and lemon-grass oil). Ginger grass
is the one most likely used in the biblical context, although the others can-
not be entirely ruled out.
f. Cassia—(קדה (kid daw); קציעות (keh tsee oth)) Kiddaw has
been identified with the cassia plant, although there is no solid evidence to
support this identification. It is native to India, Ceylon, and Malaya. The
product is the dried bark peeled off of the branches and stems of the tree in
the form of hollow tubes. Its quality is said to be inferior to the true
cinnamon.
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Ketsia has been somewhat dubiously identified with the Indian orris,
a perennial plant with large leaves and a tall, thistle-like stem bearing pur-
ple flower heads. It possesses fragrant substances used for perfumes and
incense, and also in medicine. It is native to the Himalayan Mountains.
g. Cinnamon—(קנמון (kin ah mone)) This is an evergreen tree,
6 to 9 meters tall. Its bark is ash-colored, and its flowers white and ar-
ranged in clusters. It is native to Ceylon and Malaya, but is rather widely
cultivated in other tropical countries for its valuable bark, which is peeled
off and brought to commerce as hollow bark tubes; oil extracted from the
fruit and bark was also used. The use of cinnamon at the time of the Bible
was 3-fold: as a delicious flavor for food, as a perfume, and as an ingredi-
ent of the "holy oil." Like many other spices, it was imported to Palestine
via southern Arabia or via Tyre by the Phoenicians.
h. Galbanum—(חלבנה (khel beh naw)) It is a perennial herb,
with a strong taproot and finely dissected leaves. The stem and root con-
tain a yellow or brown gum, which looks like amber. This gum is strong-
ly fragrant when burned. In biblical days it was used as an ingredient of -
the incense in the tabernacle.
i. Incense, Frankincense—(לבונה (leb oh nah); libanoV (lib ah
nos)) These are low trees or shrubs with featherlike leaves. They grow in
eastern tropical Africa, in tropical Arabia, and in India. The branches ex-
ude a gum in the form of glittering drops, which when burned or heated
give off a strong balsam odor. This gum was imported from Arabia, chiefly
for the use of sacrificial services; the incense was also used by the Egyp-
tians and others for embalming and fumigating.
j. Myrrh—(לט (lote); מור (mor); smurna (smur nah) Although
most believe that lot is "laudanum," such a translation is not consistent with
the Hebrew, as the plant from which laudanum comes does not occur in
Gilead. It is not improbable that the Greek word for myrrh is accurate for
lot. Myrrh is native to Arabia, Abyssinia, and Somaliland, coming from a
thorny bush. A fragrant, slightly bitter and pungent resin is exuded from
the branches and stems. The gum was once used as drug, perfume and
an embalming substance.
k. Spikenard, Nard—(נרד (nard); nardoV (nar dos)) This is a
perennial herb with strongly aromatic root-stocks. It is native to the Hima-
layan Mountains and is used as a perfume in India and other Asian
countries.
l. Spices—(בשם (bo sem)) This Hebrew word has many different
translations in the Bible. It doesn't always refer to a specific plant, but it
mostly refers to the balm or balsam tree, a tropical deciduous shrub gro-
wing in SW Arabia. It contains a resin, which exudes from the branches
in yellow drops; the drops darken when hardened. In biblical days it was
used in holy oil and incense. According to some sources, this plant has
been grown since Solomon’s time in Jericho and perhaps other tropical
sights in the Jordan Valley. It may also have been grown in Dead Sea sur-
roundings and in Gilead’s lowlands, hence the name "balm of Gilead."
9. Costly Timbers
a. Ebony—(הבנים (ho beh neem)) Ebony wood was well known
in Egypt
dark brown wood, hard, heavy, and most durable. It is tall, indigenous
to Ceylon (Sri Lanka), with simple leaves and bell-shaped flowers. It is
also probable that similar species of trees are involved in the name
"ebony."
b. Gopher—(ﬧגפ This is the wood used by Noah to build the
ark. All attempts to identify gopher with trees like pine, cypress, plane
tree, etc., are based on inadequate evidence.
c. Algum, Almug—(אלגומים (al goo meem); אלמגים (al moo
geem)) The identity of this tree is uncertain, although some identify it
with the sandalwood tree.
10. Forest Trees and Shrubs
a. Acacia tree—(שטה (shi tah); שטים (shi teem)) Of the 3 acacia
species native to Sinai, the most common is an evergreen tree, 3 to 5.5
meters, with a thick trunk and a spreading crown. The locality Shittim
in the Jordan Valley was called so because of the abundance of acacia
trees in the area.
b. Bay tree—(ﬧחאז (‘ez rach), native) This is the King James
Version translation for the Hebrew. The text may not be referring to
any particular tree. The bay or laurel tree is noted for its aromatic
leaves.
c. Bush, Thornbush—(סנה (seh neh)) The bramble bush is com-
mon in moist soils and near river banks throughout Palestine Syria
It is a shrub about 90 cm high, with spiny branches and leaves composed
of 3 oblong or rounded leaflets. It doesn't fit the context of Exodus, as it
is not seen in the Sinai.
d. Cedar—(ארז (‘eh rez)) The cedar of Lebanon is one of the most
famous trees of the plant world. It is a mighty, beautiful, and long-living
tree of the pine family. In the cedar forests of Lebanon there are trees
1,000 years old or older. It reaches a height of 30 meters and a width of
1.8 to 2.7 meters. Its crown is very broad and its branches horizontally
spread. The mature female cones are oval, about 7 cm long. The cedar is
rather common in middle and northern Lebanon, where it is confined to
an altitude between 1,400 and 1700 meters. It may have grown in sou-
thern Lebanon, but it never grew in Palestine.
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Since ancient times, Lebanon cedars were cut and exported to
Egypt, Assyria, and Palestine. Its timber was used for construction of
temples and royal palaces, as well as for shipbuilding. David and Solo-
mon are best known for importing large amounts of cedar timbers; it was
also imported after their time as well. The cedar was a symbol of gran-
deur, might, pride and majesty. It is mentioned 70 times in the Bible, but
some of those references, especially those not having to do with construc-
tion need to be referred to other pine trees.
e. Cypress
It is 9 to 15 meters tall, with an erect trunk and spreading branches. The
leaves are minute, scalelike and pressed flat against the branches. The
seed-bearing cones are ball-like, 2.5 cm or so across; the seeds are nar-
rowly winged. It was used as ornament, windbreak, and also for lumber.
f. Fir, Fir Tree—(בראש (ber ‘osh
confusion among translators and commentators in identifying the Hebrew
names of trees and shrubs, and the fir tree is just one example. Berosh
and Beroth refer to a juniper species, called the Grecian juniper or Eastern
Savin, growing with the cedar in Lebanon. It is fragrant; its leaves are
small and scale-like, and its timber is valued in building because of its
durability.
g. Heath—(ערער ('ar ‘awr), juniper) Using "heath" to translate this
word is erroneous, as there are no heath trees in deserts. More plausible
is identifying it as Phoenician juniper, which is found in the Sinai and in
the outskirts of Mount Seir facing the Desert of Edom. It's common in
Mediterranean countries.
h. Juniper—(רתם (ro them)) While the King James Version uses
"juniper" to translate this word, it is more accurately identified as the
White Broom Tree. It is a broom-like, much-branched shrub 90 to 180 cm
high. It's most characteristic of the deserts and sand dunes and is used by
the Bedouins for fuel.
i. Laurel
Hebrew word is not an "ash," but the laurel tree. The laurel is an evergreen
tree, reaching 4.5 meters in height. All parts of the plant contain fragrant
ethereal oil, which is used in medicine. The leaves and fruit are used for
flavoring pickles.
j. Hyssop—(אצוב (‘ay zob); usswpoV (us so pos)) There is al-
most total agreement as to the identity of hyssop. The most convincing evi-
dence is that the plant is still in use with the Samaritans, who use its bran-
ches as a brush sprinkling the blood of the Passover sacrifice. It is a pe-
rennial white, hairy shrub, 30 to 60 cm high, with slender branches, and
woolly-haired leaves. The minute, white flowers are arranged in small
dense heads or spikes. It was used for sprinkling the doorposts of the Isra-
elites in Egypt, for purifying lepers and infested houses, and also in the red
heifer sacrifice. In the New Testament, it was used to give Jesus vinegar.
k. Mallow—(מלוח (mal loo akh)) This plant, identified as the
Shrubby Orache is most common in Palestine's salt lands. It is a shrub
up to 1.2 meters high. The leaves are covered with tiny hairs and are
eaten by hungry shepherds of the desert.
l. Myrtle—(הדס (had as)) The myrtle is an evergreen, much-
branched shrub, 60 to 120 cm high; the leaves are smooth, the flowers are
white. The fruit are bluish-black berries. Almost all of the plant contains
a fragrant oil used in perfumes; the fruits are edible. It symbolized peace and thanksgiving for the Hebrews and was used along with 3 other kinds
of branches in the tabernacle feast.
m. Oil Tree, Wild Olive—(עץ השמן (‘ates ha sheh men), oil
tree) There have been misinterpretations of this word in the Bible. It is not
the same as "olive," which has its own word. It's not "wild olive," because
one can neither build from its wood nor fetch branches of it. The tree that
best fits most of the biblical contexts is the Aleppo or Jerusalem Pine; Kur-
dish Jews still call it ates hashemen. It is 9 to 15 meters tall and has an
oval or round crown. It is called "oil wood" because tar and turpentine are
secured from it.
n. Oak—(אלון (‘al lone)) It's possible that this word may also have
been applied to big trees in general. There are 3 species of oaks in Pale-
stine, but only 2 are involved in the biblical name. The Common Ever-
green Oak is an evergreen tree which may attain a height of 15 meters; its
leaves are feathery and its fruit is an acorn. The other tree is a Tabor Oak;
it is a deciduous tree, confined to lower attitudes and less common than
the former. It may get taller than 18 meters and live to a very great age.
Aged trees of both species are found as "sacred trees" or "sacred woods."
The oak also symbolized might and grandeur.
o. Plane Tree—(ערמון (‘ar mone)) The plane tree is a deciduous
tree, 9 to 15 meters tall, with a broad, oval crown and large, hairy leaves.
It grows on river banks, mainly in the northern part of Palestine.
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p. Storax Tree—(לבנה (lib neh), Revised Standard Version uses
"poplar") It is surprising that some interpreters put together the oak, the
terebinth, and the poplar on dry hillsides in shallow soil, when the poplar
requires deep soil and heavy irrigation. The Hebrew name seems to re-
quire a white tree, and the storax is such a tree. It grows naturally among
the other two trees as a small tree or a high shrub with oval leaves and
white, showy flowers that blossom in the spring. It is common all over
the eastern Mediterranean countries.
q. Tamarisk—(אשל (‘ay shel)) Identification of this tree is cer-
tain. Tamarisks grow abundantly in deserts, on dunes, in salt marshes, and
on riverbanks. It is leafless with green, jointed branches and a wide-sprea-
ding crown. It flowers in late summer with small, white flowers and cap-
sules with minute feathery seeds.
r. Terebinth, Turpentine Tree—(אלה (‘ay law)) Identification of this
tree is certain, although the word could have been applied to large trees in
general. Using "teil tree" and "elm" to translate the Hebrew word doesn't
make sense, as the teil tree has grown in Palestine only in recent times,
and the elm is very rare. The Palestine Terebinth is a deciduous tree,
sometimes reaching 9 meters in height, and grows nuts that can be roasted
and eaten. The Atlantic terebinth is similar, a semi-desert tree that often
grows higher than its Palestinian counterpart. Like the oak, aged tere-
binths are found as "sacred trees" or "sacred woods."
s. Thick Tree—(עץ עבות (‘ates 'ah bote), Revised Standard Ver-
sion uses "leafy tree") All the identifications as yet suggested for this
name, with the probable exception of myrtle, are unacceptable.
t. Willow
as Euphrates poplars and Palestinian willows. The willows of Psalm 137
were most likely poplars, which were very common on the banks of the Ba-
bylon. The tree had both oval-shaped leaves and willow-like leaves on its
younger shoots and branches. On the Jordan River this tree, along with
the Jordan tamarisk, formed dense thickets. Of the actual willows of Pale-
stine, the Common Willow differs from the poplars by their narrow leaves
and by their floral structure.
u. Lilies and Roses—(שושנה, (sho sha na), lily, rose; חבצלת
(khah bah tsah leth), narcissus) It is probable that all the existing sugges-
tions, presented in the current literature for identification of these Hebrew
names are devoid of any scientific or otherwise convincing bases.
The first Hebrew word above is not identical with the lily, as the only
lily native to Palestine grows neither in the valley, nor among thorns or
brambles, as the biblical context indicates. It's found only in Upper Galilee
and on Mount Carmel. In both, it is hidden in shady holes, or among cliffs,
within dense woodland.
There are amazing quantities of flowers forming beautiful carpets in
the plains. Flowers from the anemone, Alpine violet, tulip, hyacinth, nar-
cissus, daffodil, crocus, iris, and orchid families are some of the over 40
families that grow on the hills and among the thorns of Palestine. There is
reason to believe that shoshanna is not a specific name in the Bible, and
that it may denote a plant’s blossom or any plant with showy flowers. The
choice of "narcissus" to translate khabatsaleth lacks solid basis. There are
many other showy flowers that symbolized the gladness and blooming of
the desert just as well.
11. Reeds and Rushes
As a group, these plants are easily recognizable. But it is rather dif-
ficult to distinguish between individual species. Since people of the Bible
had similar difficulties, uncertainty in identifying species is quite natural.
a. Reed—(קנה (kaw neh)) There are at least 5 Palestinian reed
species for which this name can be used. The most common reed occurs
throughout Palestine on river banks. It is 1.2 to 3 meters high and between
13 and 25 mm thick. It has a flower cluster 30-45 cm long. Some biblical
phrases use this word in a collective sense.
b. Rush, Papyrus, Bulrushes—(גמא (go meh)) This Hebrew
name has not always been uniformly translated. The papyrus plant is a
perennial rush, 3 to 4.5 meters high and 2.5 to 7.5 cm thick. It is a tropical
plant reaching in Palestine its northern range of distribution. This is the
famous papyrus plant of the ancients, from which papyrus rolls were pre-
pared. It was also used in wickerwork, mats, rods, and small canoes.
c. Cattail—(סופ (soof)) This is a tall, grass-like perennial with very
long, striplike, erect leaves and a cylindrical stem, with a brown, cylindri-
cal fruit on top, and also bearing at the upper part separate male and fe-
male clusters of very small flowers and fruits. It is used in various wicker-
works.
d. Rush, Bulrush, Hook Caldron—(אגמון (‘ag mone)) The He-
brew name is derived from the name for lake, but it probably means
"swamp vegetation" and not "lake". These lake rushes are lower than the
common reed, and the stems are used for wickerwork.
e. Flag, Meadow, Reeds—(אחו (‘aw khoo)) Most translations
using "meadow" seem right. Near water bodies there are grasses and ru-
shes fed from underground or by flood. These are excellent grazing areas.
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12. Thorns and Thistles
The number of Palestinian plants which belong to the thorns and
thistles category is well over 100. The biblical names of thorny or spiny
plants do not exceed 15. The English names used in various translations
are "thorn," "thistle," "bramble," and "brier." There are great difficulties
in the identification of these names with existing plants, and in finding
English names for them. Observers, even expert ones, often have diffi-
culty distinguishing between the various kinds of thistles and producing
specific names for them. Many of the names for thorns and thistles may
have been specific once, but later became generalized.
These plants were often used for hedges (משוכה (mes oo kaw)).
Since ancient times, the boxthorn has been planted for this purpose.
Other types of hedges include the use of other bushes and shrubs left
growing around cultivated land, and low stone fences with dead seeryim
(thorny burnet) bushes on top.
a. Thorn (שירים (seer yeem); akanqinoV (ah kan
There has been much discussion in literature as to the "crown of thorns"
that Jesus wore and what thorns went into the making of it. The usual
opinion is a species of thorn named for its assumed place in biblical his-
tory. However, this particular species does not grow naturally in the Ju-
dean mountains, and there is no reason for the people of the Bible to
grow it there.
There are, however, several spiny plants common in the vicinity of
the place supposed to be Golgotha. Among them is the seeryim, or the
Old Testament's. Thorny Burnet. This is a much-branched shrub of the
rose family, between 30 to 60 cm tall, with inconspicuous flowers, small,
compound leaves and slender, thorny branches. These branches could ea-
sily have been used for Jesus' thorny crown, as this shrub grows naturally
in near what we think is Golgotha. It is widely used by the Arabs for fuel
and fencing.
b. Brambles, Thorns (אטד (‘aw tawd)) In Judges 9, this word is
translated "brambles"; in Psalm 58, "thorns" is used. The actual plant is the
boxthorn, a shrub 90 to 180 cm high. It has oblong leaves, spiny branches,
pink or violet flowers, and edible berries. As mentioned above, it is used
to make hedges.
c. Brier (חדק (khay dek)) The Gray Nightshade is a perennial
shrub, 90 to 150 cm high. The whole plant is beset with dense, woolly
hairs. The branches and the leaves bear curved spines. The plant is na-
tive to the Dead Sea surroundings, and to the Lower Jordan Valley.
d. Thistle (דרדר (dar dar); חוח (kho akh)). These names have
been used in translating several Hebrew names for spiny plants; dardar
has been identified as “star thistle”. These are annual/biennial plants; the
stem is much-branched and bears flowering heads surrounded by shiny
scales; the flowers are mostly yellow and are arranged in spiny heads.
The Khokh in Job is a noxious weed abundant in grain fields, now iden-
tified as Golden Thistle. It is 90-120 cm high. The stem has spiny
wings; its green leaves have white patches and veins.
13. Weeds and Nettles
a. Nettle (חרול (khaw rool)) In Palestine
one of them being the Roman Nettle; all of them are annuals. The flo-
wers and fruits are green and inconspicuous. The whole plant is beset
with stinging hairs, which give off an irritating liquid when touched.
b. Wheel, Rolling Thing, Whirling Dust (גלגל (gal gal)) The
most plausible translation is "tumble weed." There are at least 30 spe-
cies in Palestine which are most typical tumble weeds. These are mostly
much-branching annuals or perennials; their main stem breaks off after
seed-ripening, and they roll with the wind over plains and valleys. The
most common tumble weeds are the Tournefort's Gundelia and Saltwort.
c. Cockle (באשה (bosh aw), weed) This is a mistranslation of the
word in Job 31 (King James Version), because cockle is exceedingly rare
in Palestine
"weeds."
d. Tares (zizanion (ziz an ee on)) It is generally agreed that the
word refers to the darnel, an annual grass 60 to 120 cm high. The leaves
are like those of wheat, the ears are narrow and composed of many-flo-
wered spikelets. The darnel grains pass the screen meshes with the
wheat grains and are therefore sown with them or ground with them into
flour, which then has a bitter taste, due to a fungus under the seed coat of
the darnel.
14. Wormwoods and Poisons
a. Gall, Hemlock (רוש (rowsh)) Some authorities claim that rosh
is a poisonous plant in most passages. In Hosea 10, it is translated as
"hemlock" in the King James Version. Poison Hemlock is rather common
in waste places throughout Palestine. It is a much-branched perennial
herb 90 to 120 cm high;its juice is supposed to be poisonous. It must be
remembered that other "bitter" plants native to Palestine are not excluded
from consideration in the identification of this name.
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b. Wormwood (לענה (lah ‘ah naw)) White Wormwood is a dwarf,
gray-hairy, strongly aromatic, much-branched shrub. It has a bitter taste
and is used in folk medicine.
c. Bitter Herbs (מרורימ (mer or eem)) The plant which best fits
the text is the star thistle, which grows in the desert. Their leaves are ga-
thered by Bedouins of the desert and eaten as salad despite their bitter
taste.
d. Wild Gourds (פקועות שדה (pak koo ‘ath saw deh)) The Wild
Gourd is a relative of the melon, with long trailing branches which are
reminiscent of a vine. The fruit is the size of an orange, with a hard yel-
low rind, and a spongy pulp. The pulp is widely used medicinally,
mainly as a purgative. It has a strong, bitter taste.
15. Other
Plants:
a. Gourd
(קיקיון (kee kaw yone)) In Jonah 4, this isn’t a gourd, but
a castor bean plant. It is a fast-growing perennial plant with large leaves
that would provide a lot of shade, as in Jonah. The fruit is a capsule with
3 large seeds. The oil extracted from the seeds was medicinal and a lu-
bricant in machinery.
b. Caper
(אביונה (‘ah be yo nah)), desire (in both the King James
Version, and the Revised Standard Version)) The plant that fits the con-
text is the caper bush. It is 60 to 90 cm high. Its large white flowers are
open for one night only. The flower buds are used as a condiment. In
the past, both the buds and the young fruits were used as an aphrodisiac,
which explains the use of "desire" to translate this word in the past.
c. Mandrake (דודאים (doo dah eem)) The Mandrake plant is a
stemless perennial herb, with thick branched roots, large, oblong, wrin-
kled leaves, and bluish, bell-shaped flowers. The fruits are plum-like,
yellowish-red, and have a delicious fragrance. They are edible, but are
said to be narcotic, purgative, and emetic. Since the roots often resem-
ble a human body, especially its genitalia, it has long been, and still is
used as an aphrodisiac. In Palestine it is common in fields and waste
places of the Mediterranean zone.
d. Manna (מן) Some authorities attempt to identify the manna with
lichens, or with a substance exuded from tamarisk trees, or a substance
given off by insects living on tamarisk trees. However these might fit,
they do not occur in enough quantities to support all the Hebrews who
were wandering in the desert.
PLANTS, PLEASANT (נטעי נעמנים (nee teh ‘ay na ‘ah maw neem)) There
is virtual unanimity for the view that this phrase in Isaiah 17 alludes to
a sacred garden of Adonis
of an Arabic deity; but it is more probable that it is used as the descrip-
tive title of the dying and rising fertility god. The word is in the plural,
most likely because the young god of fertility had many manifestations.
PLASTER (שיד (sheed); גיר (geer), limestone) From prehistoric times plaster
was used in floors and walls. After the Israelite invasion, thick, water-
proof plaster was developed for cisterns, basins and walls. In Daniel 5,
gir refers to the plaster on the wall, where the mysterious writing
appeared.
PLATE (חפ (pakh); צץ (tseets), shining plate) In the original languages the
words for “plate” and “bowl” tend to be the same; context determines
which translation is best. The term “plate” is also used for a “metal
sheet.”
PLATTER (paroyiV (par ope sis), dainty side dish; pinax (pih naks), board,
plank) The platter that carried the head of John the Baptist was doubt-
less made of gold and silver. The paropsis in Matthew 23 and the
pinax in Luke 11 would more likely have been ceramic than metal.
PLEDGE (חבל (kha bol); deposit; עבט (‘ah bote); ערבון (‘ar aw bone))
Personal property, such as a garment, ring, or other valuables, which a
borrower gives to a creditor as token for the future repayment of the
loan.
PLEIADES (כימה (kee maw), from the root כום (kome), accumulate) A cluster
or large grouping; several separate members bound together. The Pri-
mary Greek Old Testament translates the Hebrew word by using “Ple-
iades,” which may be from either pleos, meaning “full,” or pleo, mea-
ning “sail,” thus a star or constellation important for navigation. Iden-
tity of the cluster with the Pleiades is not certain, but is generally accep-
ted. The Latin translation uses 3 different constellations to translate the
Hebrew word.
PLEROMA (plhrwma, full measure, abundance; the only reliable means of
determining the sense of “pleroma” is by observing its context.)
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Besides the meaning found in the majority of pleorma passages,
which are discussed below, some scholars have claimed that the sense
“that which is filled” may also be detected. Ships are sometimes spo-
ken of as pleromata in which case “pleroma” can mean “vessel.” But
“pleroma” could just as easily refer to a ship’s full crew (its “full
strength”). Thus “pleroma” is still not proved to mean strictly “that
which is filled.” After the New Testament period, “pleroma” is known
to have been a technical term in the system of Valentinus. It seems to
mean “the upper world,” the world which is eternity, stability, complete-
ness. There is also a strain of thought, at home in Stoic pantheism, in
which the divine is represented as filling, or permeating the world.
The following are passages using pleroma, with the meaning given
to it in italics.
Psalm 24:1; I Corinthians 10: 26-- “. . . the earth and its fullness
Mark 2:21 -- “. . . the new [patch] takes the fullness from the old (i.e.
tears away from the old)
Mark 6:43 -- “And they took up enough to fill twelve baskets with
broken pieces. . .”
John 1:16-- “Because of him, we all received fully, grace upon
grace.”
Romans 13:10 -- “. . . therefore love is the fulfillment of the law.”
Romans 15:29-- “. . . I shall come to in the fullness of the blessing
of Christ.”
Colossians 1:19-- “For in him all the fullness of God was pleased to
dwell . . .”
Colossians 2:9-- “For in him the whole fullness of deity bodily.”
Ephesians 1:22-23 “. . . the church's head over all things, which is
his body, the fullness of him who fills all things with all things.”
Ephesians 3:19 -- “. . . to know the love of Christ, . . . that you may be
filled with all the fullness of God.”
Ephesians 4:13-- “until we all attain to . . . the measure of the stature
of Christ's fullness; . . .”
There are clear instances of the use of “pleroma” for “that which
fills.” The most common is the phrase “the earth and its pleroma,” used
in Psalm 24 and I Corinthians 10 among others. The passage in Mark 2
has the rather ambiguous literal meaning of “takes the fullness from the
old.” In Mark 6, it has the sense of “sufficient fullness.” We may take
John 1's meaning to be that Jesus is uniquely filled with God’s Spirit.
The Romans 13 phrase has a sense of completion; Romans 15
means the fullest possible blessing. The Colossian passages probably
mean the same thing, i.e. that Christ is in a unique and complete sense the
incarnation of God. Ephesians 1 can have a variety of meanings: the
church is the completion of the Christ; the church is filled by Christ, who
fills everything; or that God has appointed Christ both to be head of the
church and to be God’s own full representative.
In Ephesians 3, the thought seems to be there is a completeness, a
maturity of character, both for individual Christians and for the church
corporately, or we already have his completeness (i.e. “Become what in
fact you are.”). So, in Ephesians 4, Christ's fullness seems most probably
to mean that completeness, that maturity of character which is already
realized in Christ. Thus the evidence as a whole points to the meanings
“that which fills,” “sum total” “fulfillment,” or “completion” as the best
sense in Colossians and Ephesians.
PLOW (חרש (khaw rash)) To break up the ground with a plowshare. The un-
questionably poor quality of plowshares in biblical times precluded tur-
ning a furrow and permitted little more than scratching the surface no
more than 10 to 13 cm deep. The Deuteronomic Code prohibited using
an ox and an ass together in plowing.
PLUMB LINE (אנך (‘an awk), lead) The plumb line was a cord to which was
attached a weight of metal. This device was used to ensure that a wall
was vertical. It was used metaphorically of Israel, in saying that the wall
had been built correctly, but now was out of line.
POCHERETH-HAZZEBAIM (פכרת הצבים, snaring the gazelles) Head of a
post-exilic family among the “sons of Solomon’s servants.”
POD (keration (keh rah tee on) Probably the seed vessel of the carob tree,
popularly referred to as the locust or acacia. These sweet pods, often a
foot long, were fed to cattle and swine and were eaten by the poor.
POET (poihthV (poy eh tes), maker) The translation of the Greek word in Acts
the line before, forward to the next line, or to both.
The 1st, “In him we live and move and have our being,” is recog-
nized as a quotation, possibly from the Cretan Epimenides. The meaning
is that Zeus is not dead, but is living because it is by him that we our-
selves live. The 2nd, “For we are indeed his [Zeus’] offspring,” is quoted
by Paul from the Phaenomena by Aratus of Cilicia. It is interesting to
note that in Paul’s speech Greek poetry is used in preaching to the Greeks
in much the same way in which the Old Testament was usually used in the
early church’s preaching.
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POETRY, HEBREW. Poetry comprises one third of the Hebrew Bible—this fact
was fully appreciated only within the past 200 years. Rhyme is virtually
non-existent, and rhythm is flexible, marked by an elusive tonal system.
The fundamental formal feature is the correspondence of thought in suc-
cessive half lines. The thought may be repeated, contrasted, or advanced;
it may be figurative, stair-like, or inverted. Hebrew is an explosive, stacca-
to, sound-conscious language. Division of poems into strophes or stanzas
is demonstrable only in a fraction of Old Testament (OT) compositions.
List of Topics—Canonical poetry; 2. History of Inter-
pretation; 3. Parallelism of Thoughts, Phrases, and Words; 4. Synonymous and Antithetic parallelism; 5. Incomplete
and Synthetic parallelism; 6. Miscellaneous parallelisms; 7. Meter; 8. Techniques and Strophe; 9. Genre and Situ-
ation in Life; 10. Hymn and Thanksgiving Song; 11. Prophetic Poetry vs. Priestly and Wisdom Poetry;
12. Conclusion
1. Canonical poetry—Canonical poetry ranges from brief extracts
to the spacious poetic tapestries of Isaiah 40-66 and Job. Among the dis-
tinctive religious types were hymns, laments, and confessions, thanksgi-
ving and trust songs, and royal psalms. The line between poetry commu-
nally shaped and free compositions is one not easily drawn, for the cult
was active and important throughout biblical times.
The OT books Psalms, Proverbs, Song of Songs [Solomon], Lamen-
tations, Obadiah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah are poetic in
their entirety. The greater parts of Job, Isaiah, Hosea, Joel, and Amos are
poetic; Jeremiah is about half poetry. Only 7 OT books appear to contain
no poetic lines: Leviticus, Ruth, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Haggai, and Ma-
lachi. Poems Hebraic in style appear in Luke: Benedictus, Magnificat,
Nunc Dimittis, and Revelation. Poetry plays a minor role in the New Tes-
tament (NT).
2. History of Interpretation—Only recently have efforts been
made to represent OT poetry in poetic format. Some of the Masoretic ma-
nuscripts arranged only Psalms, Proverbs, and Job by poetic units. Poetry
in the OT’s first 5 books and prophetic poetry was ignored. Greek and
Latin versions paid no attention to poetic form. Authorized English ver-
sions have only slowly responded to the discovery of poetry.
Comment on Hebrew poetry has appeared off and on since biblical
times. It has been a mixture of false analogy with dissimilar poetry and of
occasional insight. Early analysis included attempts to force the distinctive
Hebrew poetry into classical Greek and Latin meter. The church father
Origen insisted that Hebrew verses differed from Greek. Jerome continued
to use classical metric terms but always with uneasiness.
Jewish tradition is curiously silent about the formal character of bib-
lical verse. There's no recognition of the essential features of poetry by the
rabbis of Jamnia. Yet the writing between the 2 biblical Testaments shows
that poetry biblical in style was written as late as 90 A.D. Some medieval
commentators recognized the reduplication of thought in biblical poetry,
while others, both Jewish and Christian, ignored the similarity of thought in
the 2 parts of a verse by finding separate meanings.
In 1753, Bishop Robert Lowth of Oxford published his work on He-
brew poetry; it had many insights. He saw that Hebrew poetry was mainly
a matter of sense, to which sound and form were linked rather loosely. Ba-
lancing ideas and phrases had priority over strict meter. Central to his ana-
lysis was the recognition of the “parallelism of members” as the essence of
Hebrew poetry.
3. Parallelism of Thoughts, Phrases, and Words—The habits of
the Hebrew poet of balancing thought against thought, phrase against
phrase, word against word is central to their method. Alliteration is only a
sporadic device in Hebrew poetry and meter is still an indeterminate factor.
A typical Hebrew poem consists of a series of terms that fall into pairs,
each set of terms marked off from preceding and following poetic elements
by major stops.
The greater stops between the basic terms are clear, as are the
rests within each of the paired terms. The primary elements in Hebrew
poetry are the half lines that fall into parallel and that, taken together in
pairs, create a single thought. The basic unit of poetic composition is the
line, which makes up normally 1/2 of the parallelism. 2 (or 3) of these
elements together form the larger thought-unit. The larger unit is the di-
stich or tritich. Herein the basic unit will be called “stich” and the larger
verse “distich” and “tristich.”
As employed by the poets of ancient Israel the possibilities of paral-
lelism are virtually unlimited. It offers elasticity that evokes endless aesthe-
tic delight. We can be sure that no “run-on” lines, typical of Western poe-
try, occur in Hebrew poetry. The ability to pause occasionally and spell out
the precise pattern, and to test the theories against complex passages,
serves to heighten the sense of enjoyment of form and content.
4. Synonymous and Antithetic parallelism—Synonymous paral-
lelism states the same thought in successive stichs. This is the simplest
and most easily recognized type of parallelism (e.g. Psalm 24: 1-3). In the
parallelism of verse 1, “earth” and “world” aren't 2 aspects of creation, but
2 ways of designating the totality of creation; the same is true in verses 2
and 3. Zechariah 9:9 is cited by the first 3 gospel writers. The first doesn't
see the parallelism and assumes 2 asses; the other 2 assume only one.
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Sometimes each term in the 1st stich is matched by a term in the
2nd (e.g. Psalm 103: 3, 9-10). A majority of synonymous parallels are not
strictly complete. In some cases poor textual preservation has disrupted
originally complete parallels. Though difficult to classify, the incomplete
parallels supply Hebrew poetry with fluency and attractiveness unrivaled
by the repetitions of other ancient Near Eastern poetry.
Antithetic parallelism balances the stichs through opposition or con-
trast. This may simply mean that the 2nd stich repeats the thought of the
1st in negative form (e.g. Psalm 1:6; Proverbs 14:20, 28, 29). More often
the antithetic parallel presents a thought in total opposition to that of the
open stich. Wisdom literature, with its stress on 2 courses of action open
to people, offers many instances of antithetic parallelism.
5. Incomplete and Synthetic parallelism—When parallelism is
incomplete, it may be either with or without compensation. “Without com-
pensation” means that there's no counterpart to 1 of the 3 phrases in the
first line, and no expansion of the terms that are paralleled. “With compen-
sation” is when the first 2 phrases of a stich have no equivalent in the se-
cond stich. Compensation is provided by paralleling the one remaining
term with 2 terms in the second stich. Often the compensation fills out this
stich so that it has the same number of terms as the first stich.
Synthetic parallelism balances stichs in which the 2nd element ad-
vances the thought of the 1st. The 2 stichs tend to be balanced and
marked by sharp break in thought and syntax from the distichs before and
after. Parallelism of form exists even though parallelism of thought isn't
strictly found between stichs. It arranges its periods in rhythm with the
stricter synonymous and antithetic parallelisms. By placing synthetic paral-
lelisms at strategic points, the poet is able to achieve striking effects (e.g.
Psalms 2). No small part of the poem’s effect results from the imbalance
in shifting from simple re-duplication of thought to its extension.
6. Miscellaneous parallelisms— Additional types of have been
classified. Emblematic parallelism employs simile or metaphor (e.g. Psalm
103:11-13). Stair-like parallelism is the repetition and advance of thought
in successive stichs; each stich starts from the same point but moves be-
yond the preceding. (e.g. Psalms 3 and 29; Isaiah 11: 13; 59: 8). The
possibilities of parallelism are greatly multiplied by correspondence be-
tween distichs (external parallelism, which supplements the correspon-
dence within stichs (internal parallelism; e.g. Isaiah 1:3, 10).
7. Meter—While parallelism is a genuine and compelling feature of
Hebrew poetry, meter is detectable mainly by analogy with other poetry.
In the Masoretic accentual system, each word receives one stress. Since
the average Hebrew word has the accent on the last syllable, the “meter”
tends to be a rising one. Analogies to classical poetry are misleading, be-
cause in Hebrew the number of unstressed syllables allowable between
stresses is variable. Where such flexibility existed, applying rigid meters
only obscures the true poetry.
The most common pattern is a six-stress distich. It is the predomi-
nant meter in the second part of Isaiah, all of Job, and proverbs. Of the
unequal or balancing meters, 3+2 is most widespread. It has been dubbed
the lament meter, and is doubtless a product of intense emotion, with the
second stich breaking short, like a catch in the throat. A majority of He-
brew poems as they come to us have lines of mixed length. Many of
these are in need of restoration, but not all can be restored with any sense
of confidence. But a large number of these metrically hybrid poems must
be accepted as normal Hebrew poetic practice.
All that we know of ancient Near Eastern poetry supports the prin-
ciple metrical fluidity. The ancient Canaanite literature reveals a frequent
3+3 pattern, but there are innumerable variations. These Canaanite disco-
veries in particular, dating from the 1300s B.C., argue strongly the futility
of seeking metrical exactness in the poetry of the OT. Yet there is consis-
tency in Hebrew poetry to the extent that parallel stichs seldom range be-
yond a variation of one stress in length.
P-99
Meter, insofar as it exists in Hebrew poetry, is actually the rhythmi-
cal counterpart of parallelism of thought. Both parallelism and meter obey
an impulse to regular repetition, but in Hebrew poetry regularity of stress
is subordinated to regularity of balanced ideas. The tendency to fill out
lines with incomplete parallelism by compensation is due to the desire to
oppose word-masses of about the same weight while varying and empha-
sizing the thought. However Hebrew verse is analyzed, it is impossible to
dismiss the persistence of the stop. The groupings that result from these
breaks are essentially thought-units and the word-masses balance, be-
cause the poetic thought pulsates in a series of advancing, recapitulating,
and contrasting movements.
8. Techniques and Strophe—Only occasionally does rhyme or
near-rhyme appear in Hebrew. The Hebrew tongue has such forcefulness
of sound and image that the absence of rhyme is not felt as loss. Allitera-
tion is the consonance of sounds at the beginning of words or syllables
(e.g. Psalm 122:6; Isaiah 1:18-20 in Hebrew). Assonance, the correspon-
dence of sounds in the accented vowels, is especially prominent where the
suffixes indicating a pronoun and verbs recur.
Hebrew poets had a penchant for wordplay. The prophets were
especially gifted at concentrating a whole message in a single memorable
association of terms that sound alike. Hebrew is rich in words that sound
like what they describe; the Hebrew mimed reality exquisitely and moving-
ly with lyric poetry. The language is alive, so an abstract-appearing poem
is in actuality vibrating with delectability of sound and of image.
The grouping of distichs into larger units is not demonstrable in
most Hebrew poetry; acrostic poetry shows that such arrange is possible.
In most acrostics the true sequence of thought ignores the formal strophic
divisions. Sometimes a refrain appears at reasonably regular intervals.
Although “Selah” has sometimes been explained as a strophe divider, its
distribution in the Psalms and Habakkuk 3 will hardly bear this interpreta-
tion in more than a small percentage of cases.
In the absence of acrostic or refrain, the symmetrical articulation of
the thought sometimes argues strongly for strophic division. It is often
tempting to assume glosses or dislocation have disturbed a regular stro-
phic. The attempts of scholars to delete, introduce, and rearrange lines
and strophes in the interests of regularity must be judged individually, but
wholesale emendation and re-shuffling of the text not only have little evi-
dence to go on but also are contradicted by Ugaritic poetry, which is the
other language of the region.
9. Genre and Situation in Life—Poetry found early expression in
ancient Israel. The Song of Lamech (Genesis 4) bespeaks the nomadic
vendetta, uncontrolled by the law of equal retaliation. The Song of Miriam
(Exodus 15) is widely accepted as the authentic response of those who
participated in the Exodus. The Song of the Ark consists of 2 shouts for
setting forth and then returning (Exodus 10). The Song of the Well is a ri-
tual accompaniment to the opening of a well, although it may subsequent-
ly have been used by drawers of water. Other poetic snatches—e.g. Mel-
chizedek’s blessing on Abraham (Genesis 14); and the blessing of Rebe-
kah’s brothers (Genesis 24)—are doubtless pre-monarchic.
2 books are referred to by name as a source of certain of the early
poems: Book of the Wars of Yahweh; and Book of Jashar. It is likely that
other of the poems of the 1st 5 books of the OT and historical books were
inserted from the same or similar anthologies. There is often a variance
between these short poems and their narrative settings.
Our impression of this early poetry is that it was a communal cre-
ation. Back of the anthologies and their components lay the habit of pub-
lic recital of great events and observance of recurrent communal experien-
ces. Certain forms of poetry developed as accompaniments of social acti-
vity. The patriarchal and priestly blessing were probably liturgical utteran-
ces employed far beyond the setting in which they are placed in the OT.
Other compositions are patently connected with singular and unfor-
gettable events, such as Deborah’s and Barak’s victory ode and David’s
lament over Saul and Jonathan. In general the OT’s poetry may be divided
into compositions relatedto communal functions and those shaped for artis-
tic or historical purposes; most of the psalms belong to the former group.
The compositions with special purposes offer greater hope of dating,
but in much of biblical poetry, intention was artistic and religious rather
than historical, so that no clear dating criteria survive. The distinction in
principle between general and concrete, communal and individually crea-
tive, isn't easily applied in practice. The inherited types, sprung from a
deeply rooted communal tradition, controlled even the greatest poets of
Israel far more than in classical or European literature.
The forms of OT poetry are by and large “sacred.” But often they
have to do with common functions not restricted to formal religious wor-
ship. In most cases these songs were not repeated in temple worship, and
the name of Yahweh isn't often included. The mixing of secular and
sacred was always typical of Israel. This may be seen in the way prophe-
tic poetry is cast in forms of secular origin.
The poems reserved for formal worship are mainly of the recurring
type. They are always free of proper names, and were preserved in the
Psalter because they could be used repeatedly. They should not be under-
stood as a collection of hymns, as there is no evidence that bodies of wor-
shipers sang together. Many of the psalms are best understood as inciden-
tal music, accompanying some act. It is difficult to trace clearly the evolu-
tion of forms, since psalms composed for the cult passed into general de-
votional usage and vice versa.
P-100
10. Hymn and Thanksgiving Song—The hymn is cast in direct
address to deity and extols the deity’s attributes and works. Generally the
hymn seeks no end other than praise and adoration. The lament is occa-
sioned by a threat to the worshiper. The plight of the lamenter is cata-
logued often in gruesome detail, and God is entreated to speedy action.
In general these compositions would be used whenever catastrophe struck.
The celebration of the fall of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. encouraged periodic
recitation of communal laments.
The thanksgiving song stands beyond the disaster which provoked
the lament. It presupposes salvation from the threat of annihilation. The
trust song is not related to immediate crisis. It expresses rather the deep
confidence of the psalmist in God’s presence and power. The royal psalm
was presumably a ceremony in which the king was participant, such as war
preparation, victory celebration, marriage and coronation. Interpreters di-
vide sharply on the subject of Yahweh’s kingship and whether it developed
before or after the exile. It is hardly to be denied, however, that there are
some psalms in which the pre-exilic king was protagonist.
11. Prophetic Poetry vs. Priestly and Wisdom poetry—The pro-
phetic poetry had its roots in the forms of oracular utterance delivered at
shrines. The utterances of priests and prophets were brief and simple, in
the form of blessings upon the faithful and curses upon the faithless. Both
adhered to the binding power of the divine word. The single sanctuary mi-
nistry proliferated into the work of priest as custodian of a body of law and
ritual, and of prophet as the roving conscience of Israel and mouthpiece of
God.
What distinguishes prophetic poetry from priestly and wisdom poe-
try is its formulation toward specific situations. The old sanctuary forms
take on the character of reproach and admonition. The specific situations
to which the prophetic poetry speaks are as manifold as the circumstances
in which men must choose or reject God’s will.
Prophetic faith shares with priest and wise man the common belief
in the will and purpose of Israel’s God as a binding reality by which all of
life was to be shaped. A later tendency in Israel was composition of exten-
ded poetic works, such as Isaiah 40-55 and Job. Characteristic of both
poets is the free use of many previously separate forms. Isaiah 40-55 cele-
brates the new act of redemption from exile and the salvation of the
nations. Job sounds the depth of divine and human righteousness.
12. Conclusion—A general thesis about Hebrew poetry types can
now be formulated: the earliest types were simple and brief. The mixing
of types and a tendency toward greater length began during the Conquest,
and reached its climax during and after the Exile. The profoundly stirring
events of the nation’s fall seem to have led poets to a free and more spa-
cious use of forms. There was a tendency to break down and fuse secular
and sacred forms.
In Israel there persisted a tension between poetry used to express
communal feeling and as something used for specific proclamation. It is
clear that the forms were so settled in usage that they largely determined
the style of Hebrew poetry. The Hebrews never broke free from Canaanite
influence, but it is the content and not the form that gives prophetic and
psalm poetry its power to transcend the cultural setting of ancient Israel.
POISON (חמה (khay maw), anger, venom; ראש (rowsh), poisonous plant;
ioV (ee os), arrow, rust) Rosh is used metaphorically to refer to Israel's sin
aand corruption. Poisonous reptiles are more frequently mentioned. Vari-
ous reptiles' venom is designated by the term khamah. The poison of ar-
rows is also referred to by the use of this word. Many other words are
used for reptiles considered to be poisonous. The majority of occurrences
of “poison” in the Bible are metaphorical, referring to God’s judgment of
his sinful people. The terror of poisonous reptiles was widespread in the
ancient world. In characteristic fashion the Old Testament writers relate
the existence and effects of poisonous substances to the action of Yahweh
in their midst.
POLICE (rabdoucoV (rab doo kos), wand-bearer, lictor) The police or lictors
were called rabdouchoi because they carried fasces, a bundle of rods
tied together with a red thong, and from which protruded an axe. The rods
might be used for scourging and the axe for carrying out the death sen-
tence. Since city magistrates weren't in possession of the right of life and
death over citizens, the fasces carried by the lictors in Phillipi (Acts 16)
would not contain axes.
All principal Roman magistrates were publicly attended by lictors
who carried the fasces before them. It was the function of the lictors to
execute the sentences pronounced by the magistrates. The number of lic-
tors in any case was determined by the rank of the official. Each consul
had 6 in Paul’s time. Emperors had 12 up until Domitian’s reign. The city
magistrate at Phillipi had 2.
P-101
POMEGRANATE (רמון (rim moan)) The prominence of the pomegranate fruit
in early Bible times is indicated by its use in the decorations on the “robe
of the Ephod.” As a token of the fruitfulness of southern Palestine
spies took pomegranates, figs, and grapes back to Joshua, and Moses
mentioned them in describing the Promised Land. Pomegranates are
mentioned in describing and praising the bride in Song of Songs [Solo-
mon]. The fruit played a prominent part in ancient art and mythology as a
symbol of fertility; the tree was even depicted as the Tree of Life.
POMMELS (גלות (goo lote)) The bowl-shaped portions of the capital of the
temple pillar.
PONDS. (אגם (‘ah gam), pool, marsh) In Exodus 7, it refers to the pool or
marsh with papyrus reeds in the delta of Egypt
PONTIUS PILATE (See Pilate).
used as the name of the eastern portion of the strip of country in northern
mouth of the Halys River
The shoreline of Pontus
and are interrupted by northward thrusts of different mountain ranges,
which prevented the construction of continuous roads along the coast.
The shore country was dotted with Greek colonies and outposts from the
600s B.C. Sinope and Amisus were the outstanding ports.
The mountainous inland portions of Pontus
history, as they were largely isolated from the Greek ports. Prominent
among the rivers were the Thermodon, whose region was the traditional
home of the Amazons, and the Lycus and Iris, which together form the
largest river in Pontus Halys River Pontus
wing southwest into Cappadocia , and after turning northward through
is the longest river in Asia Minor .
ridates founded the kingdom of Pontus
established ruled this kingdom until 63 B.C. Mithridates VI boldly chal-
lenged the advance of Rome Asia Minor , and only after more than 2 de-
cades, was he finally defeated by Pompey. The Romans then divided Pon-
later extended east of the Halys and included the important seaport of
Amisus.
Pharnaces, son of Mithridates VI attempted to win back his father’s
kingdom, but was defeated by Julius Caesar in 47 B.C. From 37 B.C. to
63 A.D., much of the eastern coastal region was given to the puppet king
Polemon. After that, part of it was included in Galatia Cappa-
rated them again.
In the days of the apostolic church a reference to Pontus
to the entire area; or to the western portion in Bithynia
tion in Polemon’s kingdom. The Jews' presence in Pontus
Philo of Alexandria. Among the Jews present in Jerusalem
are mentioned those from Pontus
and the Aegean and Mediterranean seas is illustrated in the movements of
Aquila, a “native of Pontus,” who went to Rome and then Corinth, where
Paul met him; he later went with Paul to Ephesus and settled there.
In I Peter’s first verse it is clear that there are Christians in Pontus
We cannot say when Christian preachers first brought the gospel to Pon-
for years. Attempts to date this situation yield no decisive conclusion.
There is no real evidence that the persecution of Christians by Nero in
When Pliny the Younger was sent by Trajan in 113-115 to set in or-
der the deteriorated economic, social, and political conditions of the pro-
for more than 2 decades. Pliny, supported by Trajan, barred penalties
against former Christians who had given up that faith, but continued the
severe measures against those who refused to renounce their Christian
confession.
Such a period of Christian growth means that Christianity must
have come to that region several decades before Pliny visited there, and
possibly as early as the days of Paul’s active ministry. The Pontus
100s A.D. contributed 2 key figures to the religious world. Aquila a Jew
of the time of Hadrian translated the Old Testament into Greek. Marcion,
who went to Rome
came from Sinope in Pontus
bishop.
P-102
POOL (ברכה (ber ay kaw); kolumbhqra (kol oom bay thra), swimming-
place) Reservoirs supp1ied by rain and overflow from springs and rivers.
Among the pools specifically named or located are the ones at Gibeon
(II Samuel 2), Samaria (I Kings 22), and Jerusalem
36; John 5, 9), among others.
Most of the pools in the vicinity of cities were rock-cut reservoirs in-
to which rain water drained by means of channels cut in the rock. The re-
pair and construction of pools was an important measure in preparing a city
against siege. Pools are mentioned in a figurative sense to indicate God’s
power to transform the wilderness. In John's Gospel, the pool at Bethza-
tha, and the one at Siloam were mentioned in connection with Jesus’ mira-
cles. Among the most famous pools still to be seen are those in Hebron
supplied water to Jerusalem
remain.
POOR (אביון (‘eh beh yone), needy; דלה (dal law), lowness, poverty; ptw-
coV (petoe kos), person of low condition, beggarly) One who is desti-
tute of wealth and of material goods, lacking in even the necessities of
life; also metaphorically, the humble and meek. Dalla are those whose
prosperity and social status have been reduced; ‘ebeyon almost always
means poor in the material sense. The Greek ptochos refers to those
who are destitute of material possessions, as opposed to the rich.
In the Old Testament (OT) the poor were God’s special charge;
God would not forget them. The Hebrew judges were to give the poor
full protection, and the community was to give them special rights. The
poor were expected to remain faithful to God’s statutes and covenant;
poor, God-fearing people will be blessed. To pity the poor was meritori-
ous. It brought blessings, for one honors God by honoring the poor. It
was the duty of rich to help the poor, of the strong to protect the weak. To
Job this is not a duty but a privilege.
The terms “meek and “poor” in some of the Psalms seem to desig-
nate a particular religious affiliation in ancient Israel
are the faithful, God-fearing sons of the Covenant, who formed an inner
remnant loyal to the prophetic message. The Qumran community, those
connected with the Dead Sea Scrolls, also seems to have used the term
“poor” as a designation for their own group. The OT king and Messiah
were to be solicitous of the poor. Jesus had the prophetic concern for the
poor. He praised alms-giving, but Jesus did not come merely to eliminate
poverty.
POPLAR (לבנה (lib neh), white poplar) A tree whose branches were used by
Jacob in Haran
tish on the under side.
PORATHA (פורתא) One of the ten sons of Haman (Esther 9).
PORCH (אולם (‘oo lawm), vestibule (I Kings 7; Ezekiel 8); מסדרון (me sed
der own), portico (Judges 3); pulwn (poo lone), gateway (Matthew 26);
proaulion (pro lee on), exterior court (Mark 14); stoa (stow ah),
colonnade (John 5; Acts 3)).
PORPHYRY (בהט (bah hat), marble) A rock of feldspar crystals embedded in
a compact dark red or purple mass.
POST, DOOR POST (איל (‘ah yeel), ornament over door or window; אַמּוֹת
('ahm moeth), door frame [in Isaiah 6:4] מזוזה (me tsoo tsah))
The word ahyil refers to something strong and means “ram.” Its only
architectural use is with Ezekiel’s temple. In Isaiah 6: 4, ammoth, the
plural of amah, may mean “posts” (i.e. making up the door frame)
(King James Version (KJV); New Revised Standard (NRSV) uses
“pivots.”
A more common word is mezuzah; KJV uses “side posts,” “door
posts,” or “posts”; NRSV uses “door posts.” The doorposts played an
important part in Jewish religious thought. On the Passover eve they
were sprinkled with blood. At the mezuzah the slave who desired to
stay with his master would have his ear pierced. The words of the
Shema are to be written on the mezuzoth of the house.
P-103
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