THANKSGIVING. An
expression of thanks to God, which, with prayers on behalf of persons addressed
in letters, forms a regular part of Greek letter-writing. Among Paul’s letters, Galatians is
exceptional in the omission of such an opening.
See Letter.
THEATER (qeatron (the at ron)) Structures taking advantage of natural land
formations were designed as early as the 400s B.C. in Greece
Herod the Great built theaters in
Caesarea , Damascus Gadara Philadelphia Athens Corinth Miletus Ephesus
THEBES (אמון נא (no aw mone); Dios poliV (dee os pol is), city of Zeus) The chief city of Upper
(southern) Egypt and capital of Egypt during most of that nation’s periods of
political unity from the Middle Kingdom or 11th Dynasty (2000 B.C.)
to the Assyrians’ invasion under Ashubanipal (661 B.C.).
In Egyptian texts Thebes Thebes Zeus
During the 11th Dynasty, Thebes Egypt New Kingdom .
Egypt Thebes Assyria around 661 B.C. The prophet Nahum is speaking with reference
to the thorough destruction of Thebes Thebes Karnak , Luxor temple of Queen Hatshep-sut Temple
THEBEZ (ﬨבץ) A town near Shechem which was attacked by
Abimelech and where he was fatally wounded by a woman who threw an upper
millstone on his head. It is probable
that Thebez had joined in the revolt against him instigated by the men of
Shechem. Thebez is usually identified
with Tubas, about 21 km northeast of Shechem.
THEOCRACY. The government of a state by God;
also a state so governed. The idea was
one of the main tenets of the Hebrew people during their historical
existence. Theocracy involved the thought
of God as lawgiver, judge, and ruler of Israel
Within
Israel Israel Israel
In a charismatic theocracy, God was
the ruler and the king of Israel Sinai , Israel
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Only occasionally
did the Spirit of the Lord come upon some elected hero who, through the divine
gift of Grace was able to perform the act of military deliverance. These heroes and leaders were called
“judges.” They were the organs of
Yahweh’s reign, fought Yahweh’s wars, and appeared as deliverers of Yahweh’s
chosen people. These men, under the
influence of the Spirit of the Lord, would say:
“Follow after me; for the Lord has given your enemies . . . into your
hand.”
Apparently there
were wars during which the whole tribal federation was called upon and acted as
one. The Lord and Israel
Before the monarchic
theocracy, there was opposition to the introduction of the monarchy; it seemed
like an apostasy which attempted to dethrone the Lord and to replace the
instruments the Lord selected with a dynastic sequence of kings. The apostasy of the people in making kings
was emphatically denounced even in the 700s B.C. by Hosea. At the same time there is also the conviction
that the king was chosen by the Lord.
Samuel the prophet claimed the right and had the power to reject Saul
from being the king in God’s name.
The king was the
representative of Yahweh’s theocratic rule; he was not called “king,” but
rather “the Lord’s anointed” and “prince.”
The people of Israel Judah
In the early
post-exilic period, Zechariah had envisioned equal roles for the king and the
priest as the Lord’s theocratic representatives. The restoration of the religious community in
Judah
THEOPHANY. An appearance of transient
manifestation, unsought, of God to man.
Material on theophany consists of: temporary manifestation;
“tabernacling presence”; and incarnation (i.e. in a human life).
Transient appearances are
recorded almost without detail in Genesis 3 (Garden of Eden), 16 (Hagar), and
Numbers 22 (Balaam). The attacks on
Jacob are examples of old demon stories that were transferred to Yahweh. Dreams do not properly rank as theophany, but
it is not always possible to distinguish between vision and theophany. The theophany to Abraham in Genesis 15 is
described as a vision, since a deep sleep and symbolism is involved. The story of three men appearing to Abraham,
and God speaking to him, is either a theophany combined with an old story of
three gods, or God is one of the three.
Yahweh’s angel appeared to Moses in
a flame of fire in a bush. The theophany
thus includes a vision of the god and an account of his words. Many “angel of the Lord” stories were
originally Yahweh stories to which later interpretation added an angel. The appearance of fire is characteristic of
the Elijah stories. Most of the
references to the Glory of God are not truly theophanic. “The cloud” describes the tabernacling
presence rather than an appearance. The
“name” material is also a presence rather than an appearance.
In the majestic
theophany of Exodus 19 Yahweh comes personally to Israel
The Sinai
theophanies are the real theophanies of the OT.
Exodus 24 records how Moses, Aaron, Nadab, Abihu, and 70 Israelite
nobles saw the God of Israel. The
implication is that they saw a form.
Exodus 24 is unique in that it is the only theophany in the OT which is
silent. In Exodus 33 Moses is promised a
sight of God’s back. There are many stories
which speak of Yahweh’s appearing with human attributes as the “angel of
Yahweh.” Judges 5 speaks of the
earthquake and the thunderstorms. It is
difficult to see how these can be explained by cultic practices only.
The New Testament
refers in such passages as Acts 7, Hebrews 12, to OT passages. In reality there are no true theophanies in
the NT, for their place is taken by manifestation of God in Christ. The resurrection appearances and the
Transfiguration are not properly theophanies.
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THEOPHILUS (QeofiloV, friend of God) The person to whom Luke
and Acts are addressed, in prefaces such as are characteristic of extended and
well-written Greek writings.
Who was
Theophilus? No answer is available
except on the basis of conjecture from the literary convention. Three possibilities are suggested here. First it has been supposed that Theophilus
was not an individual person, but any “friend of God,” Christians eager for
more detailed and accurate information.
Luke certainly expected Christians as a whole to be his chief
readers. Second, and more probably,
Theophilus is taken to be a real person; writings were commonly dedicated to
real persons, not symbolic ones. The
third possibility is that Theophilus was a real person, but with another
name. “Theophilus” was used to protect
the person from the persecution which might fall upon them. It has been argued that the person meant was
a Roman official such as a governor or procurator, perhaps even the Emperor’s
cousin.
If any of these theories is accepted,
Theophilus can hardly have been a Christian.
There are those who speak of him as a “Christian of Prominence.” On the one hand, it is urged that a Christian
would not have addressed a brother Christian by so honorific a title as “your
excellency.” On the other hand, it
occurs in conventionally formal, friendly, or flattering speech, and therefore
Christians could have so addressed one another.
The significance of katechein
(to instruct) in the “Theophilus” phrase may well not mean Christian instruction
at all, but rather that Luke and Acts may have been written to correct hostile
reports the reader(s) may have heard.
Luke’s literary preface could have had slight meaning for the Christian
community, but rather was aimed at people of literary education. Theophilus, as a person of high importance,
would be obligated to aid in the distribution of the work dedicated to him.
THESSALONIANS, FIRST LETTER TO THE. A letter written by the apostle Paul and his associates
Silvanus and Timothy to the church at Thessalonica. It is the 13th book of the New
Testament (NT), and probably the earliest surviving letter by Paul. The theological content is relatively slight,
but a rich complex of doctrine lies beneath the surface. The most striking feature is the expectation
of the Lord Jesus’ return. The letter is
of exceptional human interest for the attractive light which it throws upon the
great apostle and for its picture of joy, confidence, mutual love, and assured
hope of future blessedness felt in the early church.
Authorship
and Destination—The authenticity of this letter is no longer seriously
challenged. The very slightness of the
theological exposition and the spontaneous and open warmth of the personal
greetings has the sound of a genuine letter. The expectation of the New Age, undimmed by
any trace of disappointment speaks for a date in the first generation of the
Christian mission. No grounds of
objection can be laid in peculiarities of vocabulary or style. First Thessalonians is found in the earliest
manuscript of the letters which survived, and it is included in every canonical
list that has come to us, and in the oldest versions.
A question of minor importance is
the part that may be assigned to Silvanus and Timothy as co-authors. It is not to be taken for granted that Paul
mentions Silvanus and Timothy merely out of courtesy. Timothy was a very young man, but he was
already capable of being entrusted with a delicate and dangerous commission. Silvanus was most likely the Silas of Acts 15-18,
and was a tried and trusted leader of the mother church in Jerusalem
The church of Thessalonica Macedonia Thessalonica Thermaic Gulf Macedonia Antony
It was the Jewish community, with
its synagogue which provided the apostles with their initial way of approaching
the people of Thessalonica. They
encountered not only the city’s Jews, but a certain number of Gentile adherents
or “devout Greeks.” It was chiefly among
these Gentile adherents that the gospel message awakened the response of
faith. The appeal’s success aroused
jealousy among the Jewish community and rioting under Jewish incitement. The Jews brought Paul’s host and their
friends before the politarchs and accused them of subversive activities; it
was necessary for Paul and company to escape from the city by night.
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The story of Acts leaves us with the
impression that the apostles remained in Thessalonica only 3 weeks. Paul’s own references to the Thessalonian
church seem to indicate a mission that lasted a considerable time, that had gone out into the streets and lanes,
and had brought in men and women who had never come under the influence of
Judaism. The strength of the affection
which they had developed toward their converts would suggest a period of months
rather than weeks. And Paul’s letter
gives no indication that the persecutions were instigated by the Jews; one
would never learn from reading the letter that there was a Jewish community.
It seems probable, therefore, that
Acts gives us only half the story.
Following this initial success, in which converts were drawn from
Gentiles attached to the synagogue, there will have been a much longer period
of missionary activity in the city streets.
The church would eventually consist mainly of people who had “turned to
God from idols.” It may even be
suspected that Acts’ author has exaggerated the part played by Jewish hostility
in the apostles’ expulsion from the city.
There is nothing in the letter itself to suggest that the life of the
church in Thessalonica is affected in any degree by the continuing enmity of
the synagogue.
Occasion,
Character, Outline, Doctrine, and Text of the Writing—The apostles had left
Thessalonica against their will to avoid further mob violence and danger to
their friends. They could not fail to be
anxious about the welfare of the fledging
church. Paul affirms that he himself had
wanted to come back. At Berea
The letter was written
immediately upon his return and is primarily a fervent expression of the relief
and joy which possessed the apostles on hearing that the church of Thessalonica
These personal recollections and
assurances make up the greater part of the letter. The remainder is given to moral instruction,
together with a brief apocalyptic paragraph.
This second part of the letter follows up the mission of Timothy. The date of the letter can be determined only
in relation to the dating of Paul’s first mission in Corinth
Outline
II.
Personal, chapters 1-3 A. Gospel’s Moral
Requirements (ch. 4)
A. Thanksgiving (ch. 1) 1&2. Instruction/Chastity
A. Thanksgiving (ch. 1) 1&2. Instruction/Chastity
B. Retrospect (4/5 of ch. 2) 3. Love of the Brethren
1. Apostles’ Labor 4. Sobriety and Diligence
2. Believers’ Response B. Coming of the Lord
C. Timothy’s mission (last 1/5 of 2-3) C. Day of the Lord (ch. 5)
1. Apostles’ concern 1. Warning
2. Motives for Sending Timothy 2. Encouragement and
Exhortation
3. Timothy’s Report D. Brief Precepts and Prayers
3. Timothy’s Report D. Brief Precepts and Prayers
4. Prayer IV. Benediction (last verse)
The letter is not in
any sense a theological treatise, and it is only incidentally that reference is
made to any of the doctrines of the Christian faith. In their conversion, the Thessalonians have
“turned to God from idols, to serve a living and true God.” God has chosen them, called them into God’s
own kingdom and glory to obtain salvation through the Lord Jesus Christ. God’s will is to govern all their life; their
aim must be “to lead a life worthy of God.”
The message which they preach has been entrusted to them by God; it is
the “gospel” or “word of God.” The
believers are “brethren beloved by God.”
The apostle’s thought is clearly
theocentric, but at the same time Christiocentric, for Christ is constantly
linked with God. The church is “in God
the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ . . . the men approved by God and
entrusted with the gospel” are at the same time “Christ’s apostles.” It is “in Christ” and “through Jesus” that
Christians die and are assured of rising from the dead. Paul speaks of him as: “Lord Jesus Christ”;
“Christ Jesus”; “Lord Jesus”; most frequently he calls him “the Lord.” He is the Son of God raised from the
dead. “Jesus who delivers from the wrath
to come.”
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Christians await his
coming from heaven. The faith, the hope,
and the love of believers are directed toward him in the sight of God. There is nothing here that resembles a formal
christological statement. There is no
indication that we have here a peculiarly “Pauline” theology; Paul is making
use of the common elements of the early Christian teaching. The Holy Spirit and the church are also
referred to.
The letter’s most
striking feature is the dominance of “Day of the Lord” images. First, it appears in the menacing sense used
by Amos. It is the day of the Last
Judgment, of the “wrath to come.” It
brings “sudden destruction” to those assuring themselves of “peace and security.” Against this background of menace, Jesus is
proclaimed as the hope of deliverance.
For those who are Christ’s the “day of wrath” is transformed into the
day of light and salvation. It is the
day of the “coming of our Lord Jesus Christ with all his saints.”
The primary sense of
“parousia” is simply “presence”; it
later came to mean “arrival” especially the arrival of a god or king. For Greek culture it acquired a technical
sense in connection with the state visit of a king or emperor, which involved
much advance preparation. At the actual
time of his coming, it was usual for the inhabitants to go out to meet him
along the highway, and to join his cortege for its entrance into the city,
where he would distribute rewards and honors.
This is how Paul
thinks of the coming of Jesus. The cry
of command, the call of the archangel, and the sound of the trumpet of God seem
also to belong to the same Greek ceremonial mentioned above. The imagery of Hebrew apocalyptic is combined
with imagery drawn from a quite different tradition. The surviving Greek text of the letter is
exceptionally well represented. It is
found in part or in whole in 622 documents, ranging in date from the 300s to
the 1400s. Citations are found in a good
number of the early fathers. With all
this wealth of evidence, there are only 30 instances in which the major
editions give the slightest difference, and only three are of more than
technical interest.
THESSALONIANS, SECOND LETTER TO THE. A letter written by, or in the name of Paul and his associates
Silvanus and Timothy to the church at Thessalonica; now placed as the 14th
book in the New Testament (NT). It lacks
the warmth of affection and the triumphant assurance of the 1st
letter, tending to be somber and formal.
Stress is laid more on the menacing judgments that await the ungodly
than on the joys and glories which the day of the Lord will bring to the
faithful. The parousia of he Lord Jesus will not take place until the parousia of an antichrist equipped with
satanic powers of miracles and deceit.
Authenticity—The
letter’s authenticity is in dispute, though it has been defended by recent scholars. Difficulties of attributing it to Paul arise
chiefly from comparing it with I Thessalonians.
If the 1st letter were not in existence, it is unlikely that
the 2nd ’s authenticity would be questioned. The main difficulty is to see how the same
writer could dispatch the two letters to the same congregation within the space
of a few weeks.
The main objections, which may still
be raised to the authenticity of the letter, are the following. First, it is surprising that Paul warns his
readers against being led astray by letters circulated in his name without his
authority. The very need to provide
signs of authenticity, imply an extensive correspondence. Second is the inconsistency between the “age
to come” presented in I Thessalonians, with its stress on the imminence of the Parousia, and the explicit teaching of
II Thessalonians that the Parousia will
not take place until after “the rebellion,” and the “man of lawlessness, the
son of perdition.” Such apparent
discrepancies are a common feature of apocalyptic writing, and are not
incompatible with its sudden and unexpected coming; no great weight can be
attached to this objection.
Third is the problem of the literary
relationships between the two letters.
The similarities of language and structure suggest literary dependence
of some kind. Paul may have read the
first letter and may have drawn freely upon its phrases. It may at least be said that Paul does not
elsewhere repeat himself and copy the structure of a previous letter. If we were to admit the authenticity of II
Thessalonians, we could allege the similarities as evidence casting doubt upon
Paul’s authorship of I Thessalonians. We
are left with a measure of uncertainty, but not enough to justify in denying
the traditional attribution of the letter of Paul. On the whole, the difficulties in the way of
accepting the letter are less serious than those which are raised by the
attempt to account for it as pseudonymous writing of a later period.
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Occasion,
Purpose, and Outline—In the attempt to overcome some of the difficulties by
the literary relationships between the two letters to the Thessalonians, a
number of scholars have developed several far-fetched theories in order to
solve this particular literary problem.
It is best to accept the difficulties, and to attempt to reconstruct the
circumstances in which Paul may have sent such a letter to Thessalonica.
A great part of our difficulty is
due to our ignorance of the conditions of communication between Paul and his
churches. All that we know is that some
brief time after Timothy’s visit, word come to Paul by some unknown channel
from the Thessalonian church. He hears
of the persecutions which his converts are undergoing, perhaps in such
harrowing terms as to account for the general somberness of the letter and for
its emphasis on the judgment which will be meted out to the persecutors by
God’s judgment at the Lord’s Parousia.
He is told that some
believe that the day of the Lord has come already. He reminds them of his own previous teaching
about the chain of events which are to precede and accompany the Parousia. He hears that some live lazy and disorderly
lives, imposing upon their hard-working brethren while they blissfully await
the dawning of the glorious day.
The letter,
accordingly, is written in response to a second report on the state of the
Thessalonian church, and it seeks to: encourage and strengthen the readers in
the faith to withstand persecution; correct the notion that the day of the Lord
has come, by showing that certain events have not happened yet; and to advise
the church on the severe yet affectionate discipline that should be used on
lazy and disorderly members. The date of
the letter cannot be exactly determined, but it was probably written in
50-51. The fact that Paul and Silvanus
and Timothy are still together points to the early months of the mission in Corinth
Outline
I.
Salutation (first two verses) III
II. Thanksgiving, Affirmation of
God’s raging of Readers
Righteous Judgment (chapter 1) IV. Discipline (ch. 3)
A. Thanksgiving for Reader’s Growth A. Warning against
in Faith and Love, and their Idleness
Endurance of Persecution B. Apostles’ Example
B. God’s Righteous Judgment C. “No Work, No Food
B. God’s Righteous Judgment C. “No Work, No Food
1.
Followers will be granted Rest D. Appeal to Idlers
C. Restraining Power E. Idlers treated sternly
III.
Antichrist’s Parousia (ch. 2 +
5 vss. ch. 3) V. Conclusion:
A.
Warnings against False Revelations Benedictions
B. Events preceding Coming Day and Greeting
C. Restraining Power (last 3 verses)
D. Antichrist’s Parousia & destruction;
Powers of Deception; Consequences
to those he Deceives
Main Theme—The letter’s chief interest lies in the central apocalyptic passage. The theme is introduced in relation to a practical problem which has arisen in the church to which he is writing. His treatment presupposes a measure of previous instruction. Consequently, he gives an incomplete account of his apocalyptic doctrine. The teaching here given is therefore fragmentary, and presents some uncertainties of interpretation.
to those he Deceives
Main Theme—The letter’s chief interest lies in the central apocalyptic passage. The theme is introduced in relation to a practical problem which has arisen in the church to which he is writing. His treatment presupposes a measure of previous instruction. Consequently, he gives an incomplete account of his apocalyptic doctrine. The teaching here given is therefore fragmentary, and presents some uncertainties of interpretation.
In the Thessalonian church, some
of its members have been led to believe that the day of the Lord has come. Its effect has been to shake them out of
their senses and leave them in a state of alarm that they have been deprived of
glory and left to fearful judgments.
Paul warns them against falling into any such error, bidding them
remember that first there must be a great rebellion led by a figure of towering
arrogance, who is the enemy of all religion and “takes his seat in the temple God
At least three phrases mentioned
above are susceptible of more than one interpretation: “the rebellion”; the
“man of lawlessness”; and “that which [or he who] restrains.” The first two can be set in the light of the
Jewish apocalyptic, for their writings include widespread apostasy among the
signs of the end. The third phrase has
no parallel to help us.
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“The rebellion” is
probably a mustering of nations against God, or a vast and violent uprising
against authority of Rome
The “man of lawlessness,” or the
“lawless one,” is depicted in terms which are drawn from Jewish
apocalyptic. Although “anti-christ” is
not used in these writings, it conveys the essential notion of the figure
presented there. One interpretation is
that “antichrist” or the “man of lawlessness” is not a particular individual
but a principle of error or of evil which appears in many embodiments. It is clear that Paul is thinking in terms of
an individual who is to appear at the very end of the age; he will have his own
“parousia.” Some interpreters have held that Paul sees
him as a supernatural being; but it seems evident that Paul presents him as a
human being possessed of supernatural powers.
In the phrase “that which [or he who] restrains,” Paul uses language from previous instruction, so we are left uncertain because we lack that previous teaching. The phrase has generally been taken to mean the Roman Empire and the Roman emperor. This is nothing more than a conjecture and one that will not stand up under scrutiny. A different line of interpretation comes from Antiochian theologians of the 300s: “that which restrains” is the divine decree that the gospel must “be preached throughout the whole world. “He
who restrains,” in this view is Paul himself, apostle to the Gentiles. But if Paul is to be removed from the scene, then he cannot also include himself among those “who are alive,
who are left unto the coming of the Lord.” Others have imagined the restraining influence
to be some angelic being. In the end, it should be recognized that the apostle does not provide us with any key for solving his cryptic phrases.
THESSALONICA (h Qessalonikh) An important Macedonian city, known today as
Salonika, and located on the Thermaic Gulf (Gulf of Salonika), at the western side of the peninsula of Chalcidice; from the beginning it was Macedonia’s chief seaport. Paul evangelized this city from the late 40s to early 50s A.D. Under the Romans it was a
free city. Later under Emperor Gordian III (238-44 A.D.), Thessalonica was given the title Neokoros, to indicate its oversight of an imperial cult temple; under Decius in 250 it
was made a colony.
The surviving wall on the north and east of the city are from Byzantine
times, but rest at least in part upon more ancient foundations. The gate at
the western entrance to the city, once known as the
dating some time from 30 B.C. to 143 A.D.; one of the other inscriptions belongs to
the reign of Augustus; and yet another is dated under Claudius.
(See also entry in the Old Testament (OT) Apocrypha/Influences
outside the OT section of the Appendix.)
THEUDAS
(QeudaV) 1. An
allusion to Theudas is found in Acts 5, referring to an event of 6 A.D., and a
rebel by that name. 2. Theudas I, a pseudo-messiah during Cuspius’
consulate. He promised to lead followers
across the Jordan
THIEF. See Crimes and Punishments.
THIGH
(ךﬧי (yaw reek); mhroV (meh ros)) The flank of the lower part of the trunk
of the human body; the upper part of the leg.
The term is used frequently simply for this physical component of
humans; it is a part of the beautiful body of the maiden; it is that place
where the sword is worn. The word was
transferred by the priestly writers to physical, cultic objects.
The characteristically biblical usage is that which views the thigh as
a dynamic part of the living organism.
It is important to the vitality of humans. It is regarded as the seat of procreative
powers. In Numbers 5, the thigh is
related to birth. The implication of the
phrase “your thigh fall away” is obscure.
The phrase is to be understood as the punishment related to the birth or
loss of the child.
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The
slapping of the thigh was understood as an expression of shame, sorrow, and
remorse. In Genesis 32, the injury of
Jacob’s thigh may refer to the damaging of the vitality of Jacob. A more important usage is the role of the
thigh in the swearing of an oath by putting the hand under the thigh. There is recognition of the power and
presence of the life-giving deity. On
the other hand, this may be a pledge relating to the descendants of the
man. By the time the narratives were
recorded, the original meaning of the act may have been forgotten. But the practice nonetheless served to
emphasize the life and death importance of the oath. The thigh is a physical part of the body of
man which, in terms of dynamic and vitality, is regarded as the seat of life
for the whole personality, and the source of life for those it produces.
THIRD
DAY. Jesus’ resurrection “on the third day” was an element in the earliest
apostolic faith. It is mentioned in a
speech by Peter in Acts 10 and in Paul’s I Corinthians 15. The gospels record Jesus’ prediction of the
resurrection on the third day (Matt. 16, 17, and 20; Luke 9 and 18). Scholars are divided as to whether these
words were spoken by Jesus, or were made to conform to the church’s
experience. Mark’s expression is always
“after 3 days,” in chapters 8-10. John
does not use either phrase in connection with the Resurrection.
THISTLE,
THORN (ﬢﬧﬢﬧ (dar dar), brambles,
weeds; חוח (kho akh), hook; קוץ (kotes); triboloV (trih bo los), three-pronged; akanqa (ak an tha)) Types of wild flora
characterized by sharp projections on stems.
17 different Hebrew words have been translated “thistle” or “thorn,”
with little consistency in any of the ancient or modern versions. Confusion concerning the meaning of the
Hebrew words apparently began very early.
The most common terms for these words are given at the beginning of this
article.
Dardar appears to be the generic word for “thistle,” and qos for “thorn.” It is doubtful that the Bible tried to be
precise in designating the many kinds of weeds.
Biblical references to thistles and thorns are most often found in
metaphors describing punishment for sin and those emphasizing anything that is
generally worthless. As a symbol of evil
they appear in the familiar saying: “Are
grapes gathered from thorns, or figs from thistles?” Paul’s reference to some chronic physical
ailment as a “thorn in the flesh” has defied attempts to define it. In the familiar parable of the sower, the
seed which fell among thorns, which symbolizes the worldly concerns of humans,
and was choked out by them.
The common use of
dried thorn bushes as fuel would naturally lead to using thorns as a metaphor
for wickedness and its destruction.
Thistles seem to grow everywhere in the Holy Land , but particularly in the
plains. Where crops are essential,
thistles are a troublesome nuisance and a symbol of neglect. In ancient times various thorny bushes were
used as hedges between plots of ground.
THOMAS (ﬨאומא (teh ‘oh ma), twin; QwmaV) One of the 12 apostles, mentioned about midway in
the 4 New Testament lists. His position
in the lists may indicate that he was regarded in the early church as neither
the most nor the least important of the 12.
In John’s Gospels the name Thomas is 3 times followed by the Greek name
Didymus, obviously the name by which he was known by Greek-speaking Christians.
It is startling to find that in
the Acts of Thomas Judas Thomas is regarded as the twin of our Lord
himself. If this suggestion is rejected,
we are at a loss to know whose twin the man designated by “Thomas” was, or even
his actual name. This apostle’s
character is quite clearly delineated in John’s Gospel. Thomas’ comment in John 11 reveals both a
pessimistic outlook and a spirit of intense loyalty and bravery. When Jesus assumes that the disciples know
the way to the Father’s house, Thomas is humble and candid enough to confess
his ignorance. He can be convinced of
the Resurrection only by incontrovertible evidence. His incredulous attitude has won for him the
label “doubtful Thomas.” He is portrayed
as a deeply devoted, but somewhat dull disciple; when he finally understands, he
responds with stubborn loyalty.
Traditions concerning Thomas’
post-resurrection missionary activities are questionable. The Acts of Thomas,
written in the 200s or 300s A.D., claim that he worked and suffered martyrdom
in India India
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THONG (הﬢאג (ah good aw),
bands, knots; imaV (ee mas), leather strap) A narrow strip of leather used as a cord or
band for lashing a yoke, tying prisoners, and as the latchet or lace of a
shoe. They are also used for whipping
one’s self.
THORN. See Bramble;
Brier; Plants; and Thistle, Thorn
THORNS, CROWN OF. See Crown of
Thorns.
THREAD. See Cloth.
THREE CHILDREN, SONG OF THE. See Song of the Three Young Men in
the Old Testament (OT) Apocrypha/Influences outside the OT section of the
Appendix.
THREE DAYS. See Third
Day.
THREE TAVERNS (ai TreiV Tabernai ( i trace tah ber nie)) A halting place 53 km from
Rome Appian Way .
THRESHING (ﬠגלה (‘ah gaw law), cart, wagon; ﬧגמו (moe rag), threshing-sledge; ﬧוץח (khaw rots),
threshing-sledge) The separating of the kernels of grain from
the straw. The stalks were laid on a
flat surface of rock or pounded earth located in an open place exposed to the
wind, usually at the edge of town. Small
quantities were beaten with a stick or flail.
At other times animals were driven around over the grain.
Most commonly some kind of
machine was used, either an ‘ahgalah,
a frame with rollers into which were fastened sharp stones or pieces of metal,
or a morag, made of planks turned up
a little at the front with sharp stones or pieces of metal fixed into holes
bored in the bottom. These machines were
pulled by animals around and around over the grain. The vehicles might be weighted with stones or
by the driver to make them more effective.
The stalks are constantly turned over and the process goes on for
several hours, depending on the amount to be threshed, until all the kernels
can be seen to be separated from the stalks.
THRESHOLD (סף (saf), dish, basin; ןﬨפּמ (me feh tan))
A word used for several kinds of entrances, usually in a sacred
place. In I Kings 14, saf means the door of Jeroboam’s house,
or the entrance to the women’s quarters. In Esther 2 and 6 it is used of the
royal palace. In Judges 19 the threshold
of a house is meant. Other references are to the temple. Certain priests were keepers of the
threshold; sometimes three principal entrances to the temple are specially
mentioned. It is not always clear
whether the temple court thresholds or the temple thresholds themselves are
intended.
Mefetan is
used of Dagon’s temple at Ashdod
THRONE (ﬤסא or ﬤסה (kee seh); bhma (beh ma), elevated place, tribunal; qronoV (thro nos), seat)
The ceremonial chair of a king, symbolic of kingship in all its aspects.
Fundamentally kiseh is a seat of honor for any
distinguished person, from governor to honored guest. In the Old Testament (OT) attention naturally
centers on the Hebrew throne and particularly on the throne of David. The description of Solomon’s throne in I
Kings 10, combined with representations of thrones found on ancient monuments,
gives us an idea of the physical appearance of the Hebrew throne.
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Solomon’s throne is
a high-backed chair with wide arm rests.
There are lions on either side of the throne, with wings extended
backward in flight (i.e. cherubim). On
the back of the throne was a carved bull’s head, the ancient symbol of
strength. A footstool was an
indispensable part of the throne. Ivory
inlay carved in animal or human shapes or in intricate geometric designs, and
gold leaf add to the splendor of the throne, which was reached by a flight of
six steps; each step had two standing lion figures.
God’s throne was
early represented by the Ark of the Covenant.
Ezekiel describes it as made of lapis lazuli and set on a hemisphere of
transparent crystal. Cherubim appear
around Yahweh’s throne as well. In
Daniel’s vision the divine throne is composed of flames, while in Revelation it
stands in heaven, flanked by the 24 thrones of the elders. God’s throne is spiritualized in a variety of
ways in the Bible. It is in heaven, or is heaven; it is the temple or the
nation. “Throne” represents royalty in
all its aspects, and often specifies the king’s function as judge. In the New Testament the apostles and the
Messiah will sit on thrones to judge the world.
The concept of the Messiah’s throne is rare in the OT but frequent in
the New Testament, where Christ is represented as the heir of the line of
David.
THUMMIM. See Urim and
Thummim.
THUNDER, SONS OF. See Boanerges.
THUNDER AND LIGHTNING. See Lightning
and Thunder.
THUT-MOSE (The Egyptian means “Thoth is born”) A
name borne by 4 pharaohs of the 18th Dynasty (1570-1375 B.C. Thut-mose III was the founder of Egypt Egypt Early Kingdom
THYATIRA (Quatera) A city in western Asia Minor .
It was near the southern bank of Lycus River Pergamum Sardis
See also
entry in the Old Testament (OT) Apocrypha/Influences outside the OT section of
the Appendix.
It is highly probable that there was
a Jewish settlement at Thyatira (Acts 16).
It is not clear when or by whom the Christian gospel was first preached
in that city. Perhaps one or more of
Paul’s helpers or converts went to Thyatira and founded the church. At Philippi , Paul, Silas, and Timothy met “Lydia Philippi as a “seller of purple goods”
made in Thyatira, and she was a “worshiper of God,” but not a proselyte. When Revelation was written around 95 A.D.,
there was a strong church in Thyatira with a commendable record of “love and
faith and service and patient endurance.”
A part of the church was following a
woman symbolically described as Jezebel.
She taught and led them “to practice immorality and to eat food
sacrificed to idols”; she refused to repent.
The rest of the church was tolerating her activities. Scholars have put forward three major
explanations of what this woman represented.
First, the writer may be denouncing
a teaching that physical indulgence in sex or food has no effect on Christian
faith. Second, the writer may be
denouncing a laxity from indulging in pagan feasts and orgies. Third, the “Jezebel” at Thyatira may have
been promoting a sophisticated tolerance toward the trade guilds’ patron gods,
and their social occasions, which could become immoral revels. “Jezebel” may have argued that every workman
had to join a guild, and that they did not have to take its religious rites and
deities seriously.
The problem was also found at Ephesus Pergamum
TIAMAT. The goddess of the Deep; consort
of Apsu; mother of the gods of the Babylonian pantheon. She was a female dragon or a woman.
TIBERIAS (TiberiaV) A leading city on the western coast of the Sea of Galilee , located midway between the
northern and southern shores. The site
is over 200 meters below sea level, inside a great bowl of mountains. Its climate is semi-tropical, humid, and
oppressive, blocked off from the west wind, and affected by sulphurous springs
to the south.
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This city was built by the
tetrarch Herod Antipas around 25 A.D. to serve as the capital of his tetrarchy
of Galilee and Perea, succeeding Sephoris,
which he had for a capital in 4 B.C.
Tiberias was more convenient for reaching both districts of his rule,
and a focal point in the system of roads.
It was named to honor Tiberius Caesar; its importance soon extended the
name also to the lake.
Antipas chose a natural acropolis
overlooking the activity around the northwest corner of the Sea of Galilee .
The view included Magdala, 3.2 km. to the north and Capernaum
Tiberias was governed by a Council
of 600 with an Archon and a “Committee of 10.”
Its population was Gentile, which may be the chief reason Jesus never
visited this new city Capernaum Jerusalem Palestine
TIBERIUS. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus, successor of Augustus
as emperor. He was born in 42 B.C.; his
father divorced his mother, who married Augustus; he died in 37 A.D.
From his 23rd
to his 54th year Tiberius was occupied with military affairs. In 12
B.C., Augustus had forced him to divorce his wife and marry the emperor’s
daughter Julia. Julia’s scandalous
behavior and the subsequent deaths of two of her sons by a previous marriage
meant that Tiberius had to be adopted by the emperor as his heir in 4 A.D. When Augustus died, the Senate decided to name
Tiberius emperor. The Gospel of Luke
dates the beginning of Jesus’ ministry in the 15th year of Tiberius’
reign (29).
In 27, the
praetorian prefect Sejanus persuaded the emperor to live in seclusion on Capri , and was presumably responsible
for the appointment of Pontius Pilate as procurator. When he became consul in 31, he apparently
planned to have Tiberius deposed, but the emperor informed the Senate of the
conspiracy and Sejanus was executed.
Throughout Tiberius’
reign there were trials for sedition and treason; some cases were genuine,
others seem to be trumped up. At Rome temple of Isis Italy
Tiberius died,
almost insane, on Capri in 37. His successor Caligula
raised the question of deifying Tiberius, but the Senate withheld
approval. Contemporary historians are
quite favorable toward the emperor; later senatorial historians are extremely
hostile. The denarius, or “tribute
penny,” to which the Synoptic gospels refer probably bore his portrait.
TIBHATH (ﬨטבח (tib khath), from the verb “to
slaughter”) A town mentioned in I Chronicles 18.
י
TIBNI ( ﬨבני, building of the Lord) One of the 3 commanders who in the 800s B.C.
fought for the throne of Israel
TIDAL (ﬨﬢﬠל, fear) An ally of Chedorlaomer.
Neither his name nor his country has been identified with certainty
outside the Bible. “Tidal” is possibly
from “Tud’alia,” a name borne by several Hittite kings. Tudhalias I (1700-1650 B.C.?) best fits
other allusions in Genesis 14.
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TIGLATH PILESER (III)
(ﬨגלﬨ פּלסﬧ , Akkadian for “my trust is the son of (the temple) Esarra) Assyrian King and, under the name of
Pul, king of Babylonia (745-727 B.C.); Adad-nirari III’s son; father of Shalmaneser V.
Tiglath-pileser III’s accession
to the throne of Assyria ended a period of political and military weakness in Assyrian
history. By means of large
transplantations of subjected peoples and complete annexation under the rule of
an Assyrian official, he created the Assyrian Empire as it was maintained,
defended, and extended by the kings of his family, the so-called Sargonides.
The containment of the Urartu
kingdom was the main goal of Tiglath-pileser III’s military policy. He forced the rulers of Urartu to relinquish
their political aspirations beyond the borders of their country after a series
of campaigns in 744, 739, and 736.
Against Babylonia Tiglath-pileser was able to secure for himself the allegiance of the great
cities. After the death of King
Nabunasir of Babylon
Tiglath-pileser’s first campaign was
into the region to the east of the Tigris , then he turned north against Urartu and
dispatched a general to penetrate even farther north, deep into the region of
the Medes. From 742-740, Tiglath-pileser
laid siege to and eventually conquered Arpad, in northern Syria Syria
After a series of attacks against
Urartu, Tiglath-pileser had to turn his attention once more toward Syria Damascus Levant . Tiglath-pileser
had to conquer Gaza Damascus
The death of King Nabunasir of Babylon Babylonia ; and Tiglath-pileser had to fight, without much success, with the large
Chaldean tribe Bit-Amukkani. In 729,
Tiglath-pileser made himself king of Babylon Syria Palestine Egypt Egypt
The Tigris originates in Armenia Baghdad Basra Euphrates to form the Shatt-el-Arab, which
empties into the Persian Gulf . The Tigris is navigable up to Mosul Mosul Nineveh Assyria .
Still farther south, in the region of Baghdad, lay Opis, an important
commercial center in Neo-Babylonian and later periods.
TIKVAH (ﬨקוה, expectation, hope) 1. The father-in-law of Huldah the prophetess
under King Josiah.
2. The
father of the Jahzeiah who opposed the plan for dealing with those with foreign
wives.
TILE (לבנה (leh ba naw), brick; keramoV (keh rah mos), potter’s clay) King James Version
translation of the Hebrew word in Ezekiel 4.
Luke 4 refers to tiles on a roof through which the palsied man was let
down.
TILON (ﬨילון) A family or clan of the
tribe of Judah
TIMAEUS (TimaioV) The father of blind Bartimaeus the beggar
(Mark 10).
TIMBER. See Wood.
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TIMBREL. See Musical
Instruments.
TIME. The biblical conceptions of time
and their terminology can be adequately understood only if one does not assume
our modern Western scientific or philosophical interpretation of time. The difference in biblical and modern
conceptions of time make it necessary to clarify carefully the linguistic usage
of the Old Testament (OT) and the New Testament (NT) with regard to time,
eternity, and related concepts. Only the
more important and more general concepts of time will be discussed here.
We usually conceive
of time as an abstract dimension. This
conception stems from the influence of Greek thought. The OT and NT do not know this abstract
phenomenon. The Hebrew OT has no general
word for “time” or for past, present, or future. “Time” is understood as what
happens during it, not as a dimension.
Also, we like to consider time in contrast to eternity, which is usually
understood as timelessness. The OT and
NT are not acquainted with eternity as timelessness. God is Lord of the greatest spans of time,
which God uses in God’s revelation.
Glossary
אחﬧיﬨ (‘ah
khah reet), last, latter days ﬠולם
(‘oh lawm), hidden time; ancient
ﬢוﬧ
(dore), age, generation past, distant future; antiquity, eternity
יום or םימי (yom; yaw meem), day, point ﬠﬨ (‘et), time, season, long time
of time; day's קﬢם (kee dem), before, beginning
מוﬠﬢ (moe ‘ed), set time or season קץ (kets), end, termination, destruction
מוﬠﬢ (moe ‘ed), set time or season קץ (kets), end, termination, destruction
ﬠﬢן (‘ah dan), age ﬧגם (rah gam), moment
aiwn (ahee on), originally vital force, kairoV (kie ros), destined time, season,
life; later a significant
period of time; limited time, point of time
eternity, distant past cronoV (kroe nos), time, era
hmera (hem eh rah), day
hmera (hem eh rah), day
The most widely used word we can
translate as “time” is ‘et. Whether the event which characterizes this
point of time is of longer or shorter duration is irrelevant. Our modern concept of time presupposes time
as a measuring tape which can be applied to events. This idea is not yet contained in the Hebrew
word. At the end of this age ‘et may designate the coming hour of
judgment. It is often better to
translate the Hebrew word as “fate” or “fortunes.”
Mo’ed
emphasizes more strongly conscious designation and arrangement than does ‘et.
The use of yom as an
indication of a point of time forms the basis for the custom of designating
decisive events as “the day of.” There
are instances where Hebrew uses yom that
are better translated as “hour of”; Hebrew has no word for hour. In the case in which we use “time” to mean a
more or less exactly limited space of time, biblical Hebrew use the plural of yom, yomim. “All the days” is a common expression for
“always,” “forever.” Kets in Amos 8 and Ezekiel 7 is the key
word for the extreme (final) judgment.
The OT has not developed a
special term for “eternity.” ‘Olam’s meaning of “distant past” is
less frequent in the OT, as compared with its use for the incalculable
future. Only when the context of the
verse includes both future and past, does the meaning “eternity” equal total
duration of time. Probably under the
influence of the Greek aion, new
meanings for ‘olam are found in the
latest biblical Hebrew.
OT
Concept of Time and Revelation—The OT is not alone in antiquity in its lack
of a general concept for the dimension of time.
Egyptian and Babylonians also know only the right, established point of time,
or the long, unlimited duration. The
abstraction “time” belongs among the accomplishments of Greek culture. The Hebrew conception of time is bound up
with its content. Hence the frequency
with which yom and ‘et are combined with genitives like
“of” to indicate the content of time.
Actions are either completed or not completed; there is no past,
present, and future. In much of the OT
individual events are arranged according to the nature of their content. Similar matters which are widely separated in
time can be identified and regarded as simultaneous. In worship the pious man experiences past
acts of salvation, such as Exodus, as contemporary.
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But it should be observed that the
OT in many passages discloses quite ingenuously a naïve conception of
chronological time. The succession of
the generations plays an important role in the exodus events celebrated in
worship. The OT attaches great important
to generations and chronologies, although the people of God are frequently
interpreted as a “corporate personality.”
Of special interest is the
relationship between time and revelation.
The OT attests to God’s action of revelation in history and thus in
time. God picks out certain points of
time and gives them special significance for salvation. The selection of Israel
The OT interpretation of history as
the history of salvation had an influence on the understanding of time. Special emphasis falls on “today.” On the other hand, the course of time
acquires alignment toward a goal set by God.
On the other hand, the Egyptian is conscious of unending repetition of
the same thing, not of a goal or end.
The Babylonian sense of time is marked by the constant rhythm or cycle
of nature. It leads to a theory of
periods, not to one of a goal.
This linear, goal-directed line of
time is not quite so clear in all portions of the OT. In Ecclesiastes 1 and 3, the eternal cycle
gives rise to weary resignation: “What
has been is what will be, and what has been done is what will be done; and
there is nothing new under the sun.”
Elsewhere in the OT, the cyclical concepts of time was taken over, but
stripped of their original meaning and fitted into the view of the time of
salvation. The latter days are not
regarded as the beginning of a new age, but as having a final character. The non-biblical theory of world epochs or
world dominions has been turned around in such a way here that the course of
the world periods does not conclude in a new cycle, but in the kingdom of God
God’s
Time, Human Time—The OT has no theological dogmas on time and its relation
to God. God reveals God’s self now and
then in time as the sole Lord and thereby also as Lord over time. God’s dominion over time is most clearly
revealed by the fact that God created time along with the universe as its
creature form of existence; time is something positive. Human concepts of past, present, and future,
distinguish the creature from his Creator.
Together with the created world time will end or be absorbed in God’s
eternity.
The transcendence of God over all
time was probably first fully recognized and expressed by the writer of the
second part of Isaiah. The designation
of el ‘olam, “the Everlasting God,”
is surely pre-Israelite and was transferred to Yahweh. In the last analysis, then, the expression
stems from the Canaanites’ nature religion, with its cyclical idea of
time. A verse in Isaiah says: “The Lord is the everlasting God, the Creator
of the ends of the earth. Metaphysical
timelessness cannot be found here. God
brings salvation, redemption, righteousness, goodness, and his covenant into
transitory creation as eternal values.
Humans are not immortal and the
decline of the span of life in primitive history expresses the separation of
humankind from God. In the Royal Psalms,
partly under the influence of the prophecy of Nathan and the conception of an
eternal covenant with David, the old wishes for the king’s immortality have
been associated with the king’s name, his throne, or his dynasty. OT humans are keenly aware of the transitory
nature of human life. However, they do
not seek refuge in a wishful dream of an endless life, but accept time from the
hands of Yahweh and subject themselves completely to God.
Into the finite time of humans,
there now comes at certain times God’s revelation as an offer of grace, to
which humans must respond with faith.
Time and history are of decisive importance, because they afford the
means of salvation. It is given to
humans so that they can seize the opportunity and not pass up salvation. They are constantly called upon to be
vigilant and keep themselves ready for God’s call. The realization of the exodus events in later
generations, and the certainty of the prophets that what is to come is already
present, is determined by the conviction that God’s salvation is the same
wherever God grants communion with God’s self through God’s word and God’s
Spirit.
(See
also entry in the OT Apocrypha/Influences outside the OT section of the
Appendix.)
Time the New Testament (NT)—Among the time concepts of the NT
the word kairos is particularly
important. It specifies the established,
favorable, decisive point of time. One
can distinguish a secular from a Christian usage, according to whether the
point in time is at the human’s discretion, or whether it lies with God; occasionally
people have times of decision fixed by God.
Aeon means “long, distant,
uninterrupted time,” in both the past and future. Duration of time is inherent in aeon (See Glossary at beginning of article.)
T-58
The NT builds on the
OT understanding, which is linear and bears the stamp of the story of
salvation. The salvation-historical view
is not marked by the same emphasis in all parts of the NT, but it is basic
everywhere. One needs to avoid both the
temptation to lose one’s self in apocalyptic calculations, thus evading any
decision-making in the present, and to reinterpret and limit the kingdom of God
The realization of
the story of salvation is bound up with kairoi
(the whole of time), which God has established in God’s full
authority. God alone has command over
time, but to those who believe in Christ God gives insight into the divine plan
of salvation. The mission of Christ in
the fullness of time is the center which is decisive for all times. The time between Easter and the Second Coming
acquires a sense of “no longer,” (“. . .the old has passed away, behold, the
new has come (II Corinthians 5)) as well as the curious mixture of the Kingdom
being both “here and not yet.” (“Not that I have already obtained this or am
already perfect; I press on to make [salvation] my own, because Christ Jesus
has made me his own.” (Philippians 3)).
TIMNA (ﬨמנﬠ, restraint)
1. Sister of the clan chief
of Lotan, a native Horite inhabitant of Edom Edom
TIMNAH (ﬨמנה, portion, possession)
1. A town on the northern
border of Judah village of Judah province of Maon
TIMNATH-HERES, TIMNATH-SERAH (ﬨמנﬨ חﬧס ,ﬨמנﬨ סﬧח ,
portion of the sun, portion of abundance) The place of Joshua’s inheritance and burial,
about 28.2 km southwest of Shechem. Late
Bronze Age and Early Iron Age potsherds from the surface of an impresssive tell
located there indicate a period of occupation at the time of Joshua. Judges 2 has the first spelling; Joshua 19
and 24 have the second spelling. It is
probable that Timnath-heres is the older form of the name. It has been suggested that the spelling
change is either a scribal error or an intentional change to remove the stigma
of sun-worship.
TIMON (Timwn, hold in high regard)
One of the seven men chosen by Greek-loving Christians to look after the
Greek widows (Acts 6).
TIMOTHY (TimoqeoV (Tih mo thay os), one who honors
God)
A trusted and faithful associate of Paul, with whom he is linked in the
address of several of Paul’s letters.
Timothy first appears as a
youthful associate of Paul and Silvanus in I Thessalonians. After they left Thessalonica, Paul’s concern
for the Thessalonian Christians became so great that he sent Timothy back to
them, so that he might confirm them in the faith. Timothy had been sent and had returned with
the good news of their steadfastness in the faith and of their continued
affection for Paul. Paul describes
Timothy as a brother, as God’s servant in the gospel of Christ, and implies a
rank among the apostles. Timothy’s
association with Paul at Corinth Rome
The portrait of
Timothy as associate and also emissary of Paul finds support in other letters
of Paul. Paul mentions that Timothy has
been sent to the Corinthian church as the bearer of I Corinthians. The concluding mention of Timothy betrays
that Paul had misgivings about his young colleague. Paul must underline the fact that Timothy was
doing the Lord’s work just as much as Paul was.
In the opening address of II Corinthians, Timothy is again associated
with Paul. Now, however, it is not
Timothy who is to be Paul’s messenger to the church at Corinth Corinth Corinth
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In spite of what appears to be a
failure on Timothy’s part, the later letters of Paul continue to picture him as
a close associate of Paul (e.g. Philippians 1; Colossian 1; Philemon 1). Timothy remained to the end a faithful
companion of Paul. Although Paul’s
letters are the primary source for our knowledge of Timothy, Acts provides
interesting details. Timothy first
appeared in Acts 16 as a disciple at Lystra.
References in the New Testament to Timothy as Paul’s child in the Lord
would suggest that he had been converted by Paul. His mother was a Jewish Christian, although
her name is Eunice.
The fact that
Timothy had not been circumcised indicates that his mother did not take her
Jewish religious responsibilities seriously.
Acts reports that Timothy was circumcised by Paul in order to silence
Jewish opposition. Timothy remained in
Beroea while Paul went to Athens Corinth Macedonia Jerusalem
TIMOTHY, FIRST AND SECOND LETTERS TO. Two letters found as the 15th and 16th
books in the New Testament. Most of the
second letter consists only of general exhortations, some of which are
considered fragments from Paul’s letters.
Both letters are closely related
in style, purpose, and content to the Letter of Titus. Together the three letters are called the
Pastoral Letters. The letters are
primarily concerned with church order in the beginning of the 100s A.D. Two emphases stand out: clergy must be
selected carefully and its authority recognized; and heretics must be shunned
or excommunicated.
TIN (ﬢילב (beh deel)) Tin appears in late Old Testament
passages. It was imported to the Near East by the Phoenicians; tin ore was
employed in early bronze-making.
Midianite caravan merchants were middlemen.
TINDALE’S VERSION.
See Tyndale’s Version in the New Testament Apocrypha/ Bible
Versions section of the Appendix.
TIPHSAH (חסﬨפּ, passage) 1. A city in the northeastern corner of the
border of Solomon’s kingdom (I Kings 4) on the western border of the Euphrates , about 120 km south of Carchemish Samaria
TIRAS (ﬨיﬧס) A subdivision of
Japhethites, which has been compared to the Egyptian Turusha of Ramses III.
TIRATHITES (ﬨﬧﬠﬨים (tir ‘ath eem), from the
root meaning “door.”) A family of scribes of the Kenite tribe,
dwelling in Jabez (I Chronicles 2).
TIRE (פּאﬧ (peh ‘air), turban; ﬧניםשה (sha hah roe neem),
little moons) King James Version obsolete term meaning
“headdress.”
TIRHAKAH (ﬨﬧהקה) A king (689-664 B.C.) of Ethiopia Egypt Palestine
Around 720 B.C., an Ethiopian
king, Piankhi conquered and unified a fractured Egypt Egypt Upper
Egypt ,
where he maintained a rule at Thebes
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TIRHANAH (ﬨﬧחנה) Caleb’s son by Maacah his
concubine; a subordinate branch of Calebite families (I Chr. 2)
TIRIA ( ﬨיﬧיא, fear) A family or clan of the tribe of Judah
TIRSHATHA (ﬨﬧשﬨא, governor)
This title is the equivalent of pakhah,
and is generally derived from the Persian word meaning “to fear.”
TIRZAH (הﬨﬧצ, delight) One of the five daughters of
Zelophehad who asked for and received an inheritance, although their father was
dead and they had no brothers (Numbers 26, 27, 36; Joshua 17).
TIRZAH (PLACE) (ﬨﬧצה, delight) A Canaanite city whose
king was defeated by Joshua; later, the capital of the northern kingdom of Israel Samaria
Tirzah’s precise location cannot
be determined from the biblical evidence.
On the supposition that the capital would not be moved any great
distance, the general vicinity of Samaria Nablus Megiddo Samaria
TISHBE (ﬨשבי, captivity) The supposed name of the native city of Elijah Gilead ,” may have been transformed into
being an adjective of locality; the New Revised Standard Version agrees with
this translation. This “Tishbe” has been
identified with Listib, in the mountains of northern Gilead .
There is no evidence of a settlement at Listib during the Israelite
period. One scholar proposes to read
instead “Elijah the Jabeshite.
Likewise a word
meaning “one of the toshab class, was
changed to mean “of Tishbe.” The word toshab has a specific meaning; it refers
to one who was originally not a native.
The most important toshab group
was that of the Kenites. When Solomon
engaged in the importation of horse and chariots, these Kenites, with their
experience with animals and in smith-craft, would naturally be foremost in this
service; they would give themselves the new name of Rechabites. Other Kenites, who may have followed some
such occupation as that of scribe, could have been known as toshabim. Therefore, the “Elijah” phrase of I Kings 17
and II Kings 1 and 9 could mean “Elijah the Kenite, of the Kenites of Gilead.”
TISHRI (ﬨשﬧי, gift (?)) The 7th month of the Hebrew
calendar; formerly Ethanim.
TITHE (ﬠשﬧ (‘aw shar); בכורים (bek oh reem), first fruits) To give a tenth of property or produce
for the support of a priesthood. Tithing
was an ancient and widespread practice; reference to it is found in other
religions. The references to tithing in
the Old Testament (OT) apparently reflect differing customs in differing times
and places, so there is no clear-cut picture of tithing in Israel
When various parts of the OT are
arranged in their most probable chronological order, the earlier references
seem to connect it with northern sanctuaries.
The late source of I Samuel mentions tithes as something to suffer under
a king. It has been conjectured that the
tithe was originally paid to the king for the support of the royal sanctuaries,
and later paid directly to the sanctuaries.
It is hard to explain or to place some references in the time they
actually took place, as opposed to where they are in the Bible. Tithes are not mentioned at all in the Book
of the Covenant, the earliest written collection of laws preserved in the OT;
the term “first fruits” is used instead.
Deuteronomy is the earliest code which provides for them. First fruits and tithes are ultimately of
common origin; “tithes” was used to provide a stricter definition of what was
to be offered.
The tithe is mentioned in two ways
in Deuteronomy: the tenth of the yield of agricultural products is to be used
annually in a sacrificial meal; and it is to be offered every 3 years for
charitable purposes. The Levite is
invited to the meal, and he, along with the sojourner, the fatherless, and the
widow, is to share in the charitable tithe.
Most likely these are not two separate tithes; the use of it merely
differed in the third year. Liturgical
usage is a constantly developing thing. Thus, the tithe in Deuteronomy is
something which had different purposes as it developed, such as those mentioned
above.
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Whether or not the tithe and the
first fruits are the same thing cannot be definitely answered. The basket of first fruits could be taken to
be a symbolic portion of the tithe. The
term “tithe” could have been introduced at some point to define first fruits
more precisely. Undoubtedly the origin
of both tithe and first fruits was the urge to express the conviction that all
man’s possessions belonged, ultimately, to God; such expression used various
forms.
Between Deuteronomy and the Priestly
Code no regulations with regard to tithing are found. The provisions for tithing in the Priestly
Code represent a development that had taken place since Deuteronomy. The later code stipulates that the tithe goes
to the Levites; a tenth of that is to go to the priests. The Priestly Code usually considers the tithe
as an offering of agricultural produce.
One passage, however, includes cattle in the tithe. The tithe was taken for granted in later
times.
Two tithes were required in later
times. The Mishna stipulated that
everything used for food was subject to the tithe. The extremely strict application of this
tithe caused Jesus to condemn the Pharisees for tithing spice, but neglecting
justice and mercy. A second tithe was
consumed by the offerer in accord with the provisions of Deuteronomy. The charity tithe was also levied annually
for the relief of the poor.
TITIUS JUSTUS. See Justus
#2.
TITLE ON THE CROSS.
See Inscription on the Cross.
TITTLE. See Dot.
TITUS (TitoV) 1.
Titus
Manius. 2. A co-worker of Paul. See Titus
(Companion of Paul). 3. Titus
Flavius Vespasianus, son and successor of the Emperor Vespasian. He was born in 39 A.D., and participated in
suppressing the Jewish revolt in 66.
Titus brought the war to a successful conclusion in 70; in 79 he came to
the throne. His 2-year reign was
remembered as a time of tranquility and expensive public works. On his death in 81, he was deified by the
Senate.
See also entry
in the New Testament Apocrypha/Bible Version section of the Appendix.
TITUS (COMPANION OF PAUL)
A Gentile
protégé and aide of Paul. Most of our
information about Titus comes from Paul in the Galatians and II Corinthians
letters.
On Paul’s second
visit to Jerusalem
In II Corinthians, word
had come to Paul that the Corinthian Christians had defied his instruction, and
were in a hostile mood. He sent Titus
ahead to see if the reports were true.
Paul moved westward, and Titus returned eastward from Corinth Macedonia Corinth Corinth Jerusalem
The impression that
we gain of Titus in the letter that Paul supposedly wrote to him, is of a
different person, one weaker in leadership skills and in exercising
authority. The fact that this portrait
varies from the one given in Galatians and II Corinthians is a reason most
scholars now view this as a letter which “borrowed” the name of Titus as a
literary device for a letter admonishing the churches to submit to higher
authority.
Titus is addressed
as “my true child in a common faith”; the word translated as “true” also means
“legitimate.” Paul instructs Titus to
meet him at Nicopolis, which does not fit well with what we know of Paul’s
travels. In the personal notes at the
end of II Timothy, Titus is reported to have gone to Dalmatia (modern-day Croatia Caesarea .
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The attempt has been
made to identify Titus of Paul’s genuine letters with Titius Justus. But there is no reason for associating an
unknown man of Corinth Corinth
TIZITE (ﬨיצי (tih tsee)) Designation of Joha, one
of David’s Mighty Men; derived from a place, now unknown.
TOAH (ﬨוח (toe akh), low)
A name in a list which traces both the Levitical descent of Heman and
the Levitical line from Kohath (I Chronicles 6).
TOB (ובט, good, pleasant) A city in southern Hauran,
east of the Jordan
TOBADONIJAH ( טוב אﬢוניה, [the] good
Lord is my master) A Levite sent by
Jehoshaphat to teach among Judah’s people (II Chron. 17). The name is probably a copying error
combining 2 preceding names in the list.
TOBIAH (טוביה, the Lord is good) 1. Head of a family or clan of returned
exiles that was unable to prove its Israelite descent (Ezra 2; Nehemiah
7). 2. One of the chief opponents of Nehemiah’s efforts
to rebuild the walls of post-exilic Jerusalem Samaria Jerusalem
Tobiah could be a descendant of
those Jews who fled to Ammon after the fall of Jerusalem Jerusalem Palestine
TOBIJAH (טוביהו, God is (my) good) 1. One
of King Jehoshaphat’s Levites who traveled through the cities of Judah
TOBIT, BOOK OF. See entry in Old Testament (OT)
Apocrypha/Influences outside the OT section of the Appendix.
TOCHEN (ﬨﬤן, measure) A village of Simeon Judah
TOGARMAH (ﬨגﬧמה) A region in Central Asia Minor associated with ethnic groups
like Gomer (Cimmerians) and Ashkenaz (Scythians) and referred to as supplying
horses, horsemen, and mules. The
Assyrians call it Til-Garimmu. The best
known phase in the history of the city is the late 700s B.C., when it was
involved in Assyrian military campaigns.
The Assyrians destroyed the city in 695 B.C.
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TOHU (ﬨהו, desolation, desert) One
of the ancestors of the prophet Samuel (I Samuel 1), who appears under
different names in the Bible. Tohu
(possibly Toah) appears to be the original name.
TOI (ﬨﬠי, error) King of Hamath on the Orontes .
The defeat of Hadadezer of Zobah by David removed from Toi Hadadezer’s
threat to Toi. He sent David gifts by
his son Hadoram, which are listed among the spoil of the nations which David
subdued (II Samuel 8).
TOLA (ﬨולﬠ, worm, scarlet)
Two individuals or clans of the tribe of Issachar. As a proper name the word may be a
complimentary personification or may represent a totem animal.
1.
According to the Priestly genealogies and the Chronicler’s copy, the
first of 4 sons of Issachar; Tola was the chief of 4 clans. The census lists the population of the
Tolaites, Punites, Jashubites, and Shimronites as 64,300; nothing is known of
the 6 sons of Tola. The striking
similarity between the names of Issachar’s 4 sons and the essential facts given
concerning the judge Tola suggests that these names were late tradition derived
from the statements concerning the judge.
2.
A judge, identified as the son rather than the brother of Puah
(alternative spelling for “Puvah”) and the grandson of Dodo (Judges 10). The site of Shamir, scene of Tola’s 23-year
career as judge is unknown. It is most
likely located in the hill country of Ephraim not far south of the Plain of
Jezreel. No details of the career of
this judge are given except genealogy, location, and length of service; some
consider Tola to be an unhistorical invention to fill the space between
Abimelech and Jephthah. Others consider
it exact and authentic information, based on official records.
TOMB (ﬧקב (kaw bar), sepulcher; ﬧהקבו (keh
boo raw), burial, burial-place; mnhma (meh neh ma), memorial, monument, sepulcher.)
A natural or artificial cave shaped as a burial place for the
deceased. Burial places are mentioned
frequently in biblical literature. Thousands
have been excavated in the regions both east and west of the Jordan River , often several hundred each at
sites like Jericho Gezer
They suggest belief in a future
life and reveal the culture of ancient peoples (See Burial; Embalming; Monument; Resurrection. For important tomb groups, see Beth-shan; Gezer Jericho Jerusalem Megiddo
Types
in Old Testament (OT) Times—It is often possible to recognize and classify burial
places by the form of their entrances and chambers, as well as decoration, and
the date of the objects. In many cases
classification by form is impossible because some tombs were reused over many
centuries. The earliest tombs in Palestine Galilee , northwest of Jerusalem Bethlehem
As early as the Neolithic period
(6000-4000 B.C.), tombs were fashioned by lining and covering a pit with stones
in such a way as to form a cist. Similar
in formation, but much larger in size are the Dolmens, which are scattered through
Palestine Jordan Jericho
Beginning in the late Neolithic and
Chalcolithic periods and continuing through the Iron Age at Gezer, Megiddo, and
Jericho, subterranean hewn chambers were often approached by a shaft-type
entrance, varying in diameter from about a meter to 3 meters, and in depth a
meter to 4.5 meters. The chambers varied
considerably in height and diameter.
Some of the tombs contained a single burial, other as many as 40 or 50.
At Byblos
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There appears to have been a
degeneration in the construction of tombs about the beginning of the Early Iron
Age, coinciding with the period of Israelite settlement in Canaan .
Caves were left without decoration.
About 900 B.C., tombs were carefully hewn, usually in rock formation
near the surface of sloping hills, with a small courtyard and a rectangular or
oval chamber. This suggests that Hebrew
leaders arranged for the construction of their tombs during their lifetime.
Types
in the Greek Period (334 B.C.) and Later—Beginning in the Greek period and
continuing through the Roman period, tombs became larger and more elaborate in
the construction. The building of tombs
was influenced by Greek architecture and art.
Among the several tomb complexes north and east of Jerusalem was the
so-called “Tomb of the Judges,” which had a porch and doorways, 6 chambers on 2
levels, and able to accommodate 70 bodies at one time. Some smaller tombs were carved with
rectangular entrances into which a stone could be set or with grooves where a
rolling stone could be placed. At the
time of new burials, such entrances were opened and the bones from previous
burials were placed in stone boxes for which small niches were carved in the
walls. The body was placed on a ledge
that projected from a wall.
Among the most elaborate tombs
excavated thus far in Palestine , Syria Jordan Palmyra Petra Palmyra
Tombs at Petra
The type of tomb used as the burial
place for the body of Jesus cannot be identified with certainty. Traditions from the 300s A.D. have located
the tomb beneath the dome of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The city walls in the Herodian period were
situated so the tomb was outside the city.
The Garden Tomb, located outside the present north wall of Jerusalem
The famous catacombs of Rome Palestine
Location,
Contents, and Significance—In biblical, as in modern times, cemeteries were
usually located near cities, often in a type of terrain, such as a valley’s rocky
slopes. Hebrew law did not prescribe the
precise location of tombs. Because
belief in the defiling effect of the dead, one may conclude that cemeteries
were usually situated beyond the borders of a city or village. Excavators have found that the tombs were
outside the city walls, at distances varying from city to city, anywhere from
100 meters to almost a kilometer.
However, the discovery of human
skeletons and skulls carefully buried beneath the floors of houses and
courtyards, suggests the practice of providing a place for the dead within the
community. The cave of Mach-pelah Hebron
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After the Hebrews settled in Canaan , they followed the Canaanite
practice of using natural or artificial caves, located near cities. The Hebrews in the time of Saul concealed
themselves from the Philistines in tombs.
This suggests that the tombs were in rural regions. David was buried “in the city of David Qumran .
A prerequisite for a tomb area was a
rock type suitable for burial chambers.
The tombs at Jericho Lachish Megiddo
The number and type of content
varies greatly, according to the degree of wealth and the cultural backgrounds
of the persons who were buried. Tombs of
the poor contained nothing valuable, only a few simple pieces of pottery. Personal adornment included necklaces,
bracelets, anklets, finger rings, earrings, pendants, and headdresses. Bone, bronze, iron, silver, gold, and
semi-precious stones were used in the making of such objects. Scarabs are often found in Palestinian tombs
used during periods of Egyptian influence.
Military equipment in Jericho Jericho
It is certain that ancient peoples
did not all attach the same significance to the practice of burying their dead
in tombs. Scholars do not agree
concerning the religious views evidenced by building tombs in the shape of
houses, with food and other objects in them.
It is possible that the worship of the dead was involved, that the dead
were feared and placated, or that a belief in physical resurrection led to
making provision for the comfort and happiness of the dead in a future life.
The burial of Deborah, Rebekah’s
nurse, under an oak tree may reflect a belief in sacred trees. In exceptional cases it was thought that the
sin of a man might prevent him from having a burial in the tombs of his fathers. To be deprived of burial was considered a
great calamity. It was an act of piety
to protect the bodies of slain warriors until they could be buried. Well-known tombs such as those of Rachel and
David were important landmarks. Jesus’
rebuke of the scribes and Pharisees as hypocrites for building the tombs of the
prophets was doubtless against those who ignored the living prophets while
honoring the dead.
TOMBS OF THE KINGS
( קבﬧוﬨ המלﬤים (kih beh roth ha meh law keem); קבﬧי מלﬤי ישﬧאל (kih beh ray ma leh kay
yis rah ‘el), Tombs of the Kings of Israel) The authors of Kings and
Chronicles refer to burial grounds in
the City of David
Those in Chronicles
are generally freer, and record with greater detail the circumstances of the
royal interments. Jehoram was buried
“in the city of David Israel
The notice relative
to Hezekiah states that his tomb was “in the ascent” of the burial ground of
the kings (II Chronicles 32) and Nehemiah 3 points to the hill between the
valleys of the Tyropoeon and the Kidron, where excavations have led to the
discovery of steps and very deteriorated rock-cut tombs. It seems that individual burial chambers, in
the shape of barrel vaults, were accessible from the surface through sunken
rectangular shafts. These chambers were
distributed along a strip of ground some 100 meters in length from north to
south. There are no positive clues to
the localization of the private burial ground of Uzziah.
Miscellaneous
traditions have diversely located the tomb of David in Bethlehem Gethsemane , or on the southwest hill of Jerusalem. The so-called Tomb of the Kings of Judah, in
the northern suburb of Jerusalem is in reality the tomb of Helen, queen of
Adiabene, a district in Mesopotamia . This
monument was built in the 50s or 60 A.D.
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TONGS (מלקהים (mah leh kaw ha yeem), snuffers) Gold tongs were among the
articles of temple equipment. Seraphim used tongs to take a burning coal from
the altar (Isaiah 6).
TONGUE (לשון (law shone), speech, dialect; glwssa (glos sah), language, nation)
The biblical understanding of “tongue” includes: tongue as body part;
its use as a term for “language,” “people,” and “nation”; a mode for the
working of the Spirit (see Tongues,
Gift of); its usage for the action and dynamic of the whole human life; its use
to describe part of an object that extends outward from the object.
Because it is the agent of
speech, the tongue represents the various languages and dialects which people
use. The more general and characteristic
meaning of “tongue” begins with speaking, which is not a mere verbal activity;
it is an expression of the totality of a human.
It makes manifest the inward human character. Frequently the tongue is closely related to
the heart.
The wisdom literature says that
“Death and life are in the power of the tongue.” The use of one’s tongue in “speaking justice”
or practicing deceit and slander have to do with the religious potential of the
tongue to praise God, and with the human potential for creativity. The tongue reveals the essential unity of
human life; it has been given that they might affirm or deny God. The tongue is the means of expressing the
total character of the person. Aside
from this personal dynamic usage, “tongue” is also employed in a figurative
sense as a projection or extension of an object in the physical world.
In the New Testament, James has the
same awareness of the great potential of the tongue. Much like the rudder of a ship, or the bit in
the mouth of a horse (James 3), the tongue is able to determine the whole
course of one’s life. The ethical
context in which James writes gives expression to “speaking one’s heart” (i.e.
the moral implications of speaking). The
tongue is the way a person “speaks justice”; more often it is the instrument
of acting wrongly. The tongue has related
to it all the potential for the right or wrong ordering of life.
TONGUES, GIFT OF (carismata glwsswn (kare is mah tah glos sone), free favor, benefit)
Speaking in tongues, also called “glossolalia,” was a striking part of
early Christianity. It was prevalent in
the Paul’s churches, particularly at Corinth Judea and Samaria
This gift was not limited to
Christianity but was found in many of the religions of the ancient world. The common element was the belief that the
spirit of the god took possession of the devotee, spoke and moved through them;
utterances poured forth which were as impressive as they were incoherent. Such ecstatic speech prevailed among the
earliest professional Hebrew prophets.
Their ecstatic babblings may well have corresponded to the glossolalia,
though scholars are not agreed upon this.
Followers of the Dionysian cult often slipped into ecstatic states
bordering on frenzy.
The
Christian glossolalia first appeared at Pentecost, when the apostles and their
associates became convinced that the risen Jesus was God’s Anointed; that the
messianic age had begun; and that they were the people of New Covenant. Resources of spiritual power became available
to them, creating new levels of spiritual experience. Similar manifestations continued with the
converts at Caesarea and Ephesus
Some of the reasons offered for the
“tongues” at Pentecost are: a miracle of language took place, where all heard
the message in their tongue; the multitude spoke either Greek or Aramaic, and
would understand what Peter and the others were saying; the speech of the
apostles was filled with foreign phrases heard over the years, which began to
pour forth from the subconscious; the close spiritual rapport caused the
thoughts and feelings of the speakers to be transferred to the hearers.
In Luke, the “tongues” spoken on
Pentecost are foreign languages, understood by a bewildered and astonished
crowd. There is no evidence later that
the apostles enjoyed the benefit of such a miracle. Before Luke’s account was written, the
phenomenon of tongues was common in Paul’s churches, but was not thought of as
the ability to speak foreign languages.
Paul declared that the glossolalia was not intelligible speech, and
might even be taken for insanity.
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Plainly an
irreconcilable difference exists between Luke’s account and Paul’s
account. According to one view, Luke has
taken the older and more reliable tradition concerning glossolalia, and
transformed it according to the rabbinic tradition of the giving of the law in
every language, and in keeping with Luke’s own emphasis on the universal appeal
of Christianity. Perhaps Luke has taken
the view that it was a form of language which, under the right conditions,
could be understood.
Speaking in tongues
was so well known at Corinth
Because of the
exaggerated emphasis upon glossolalia at Corinth
His criteria for
valuing spiritual gifts, and for placing tongues last was: the use of spiritual
gifts must be determined by their worth in building up the church “in love”;
they must allow for orderly worship; and there must be a competent interpreter present
in the case of tongues. Tongues were too
individualistic and self-centered to aid in the building up of the church. Orderly worship meant that the speaker of
tongues must keep silent unless interpreted, because a rational account of what
was said must be readily available.
TONSURE. See Baldness.
TOOTH (שן (shane), ivory; odouV (od oos)) Under Old Testament law the loss of a tooth
was considered equally as grave a matter as the loss of an eye; perfect teeth
are sign of special beauty in the Song of Songs [Solomon]. The teeth of voracious animals signify
predatory power. In Job 29 the righteous
man “broke the fangs of the unrighteous, releasing the defenseless from their
“teeth.” Yahweh is called upon to break
the teeth of the wicked (Psalm 3, 58).
The proverb in Jeremiah 31 and Ezekiel 18, with the phrase “set [teeth]
on edge,” refers to corporate guilt and retribution. The “gnashing of teeth” in Matthew 8, 13, 22,
24, and 25 clearly describes the despairing rage of those excluded from the
kingdom.
TOPAZ (פּטﬢה (pee teh daw); topazion (toe paz eon)) A mineral occurring in
transparent prismatic crystals;
characteristically it is yellow to orange in color. The topaz is a stone in the breast-piece of
judgment, and the ninth jewel in the foundation of the wall of the New Jerusalem. See
also Jewels and Precious Stones.
TOPHEL (ﬨפּל, lime) One of the limits of the
general locality where Moses addressed the Israelites “beyond the Jordan Dead Sea .
Tophel may have been a stopping place of the Israelites.
TOPHETH (ﬨפּﬨ, spitting) A place in the Valley of Hinnom Jerusalem
Topheth is described as an
illicit open-air sanctuary or high place.
The general assumption is that children were sacrificed as burnt
offerings in honor of Baal; but “passing through fire” may have been harmless
“baptism” by fire. They were popular
under the reigns of Ahaz and Manasseh.
Jeremiah cursed Topheth, which he foretold would be called “valley of
slaughter,” because God would take vengeance on Judah Jerusalem
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TORAH (ﬨוﬧה, instruction, precepts) General Old Testament (OT)
term for divine instruction and guidance, particularly through the law. Torah, while not the exclusive concern of the
priests, is their particular responsibility.
Torah was first viewed as priestly instruction on the basis of oracles
and traditional understandings or Yahweh’s requirements. By the later monarchy, “Torah” refers to the
basic instruction and direction provided to Israel
TORCH (לפּיﬢ (lah peed), lamp; lampaV (lam pas), light) A
brilliantly burning flame produced primitively by a highly combustible stick of
wood or by an absorbent combustible material tied on a stick and dipped in oil
and ignited. Yahweh signifies commitment
to the covenant with Abraham by passing between the severed halves of animals
in the form of a torch. By the strategic
use of torches Gideon wins his incredible victory in Judges 7. The Greek term is ambiguous, sometimes
denoting the more sophisticated oil lamp and wick; but it is clearly the
dramatic torch in John 18.
TORTURE (etumpanisqhsan (et oom pah nis
TOTEMISM. A primitive social system based
on “kinship” with animals or plants; the clan bears the name of the animal or
plant, and regards the clan as related by mystical descent from it. The totem’s sacred character excludes the species
from use as common food; the totem animal is the victim in the clan’s ritual
meal. Food taboos are an integral part
of totemism; it has been supposed that the Old Testament (OT) dietary laws have
this origin. The number of clean animals
used as personal or clan names in the OT is about equal to that of unclean
animals used. One belongs to the
mother’s totem and may not marry a member of one’s own totem.
Animal and plant names are common
in the OT, but constitute less than 1% of the total personal names. Greater weight is to be given to animal names
of clans. In the genealogies of the Edomites, more than a third of clans have
animal names. Some Israelite clans had
animal and plant names: Arodites (ass);
Tolaites (worm); Elonites (oak); Becherites (camel); Shuphamites (viper); and
Calebites (dog).
Animal worship was persistently
practiced despite the 2nd Commandment. The worship of powerful or mysterious animals
is possible without being totemism.
There is strong evidence that the Egyptian passed through a true totemic
stage, but among the Semites the evidence is meager. The vision in Ezekiel 8 of abominations of
creeping things, and loathsome beasts portrayed on the temple walls, with
Jaazaniah leading the worship, has been seen as reversion to totemism in a time
of stress.
There are marriages outside the clan
in the OT, but Hebrew marriage was generally within the clan. Kinship reckoned through the mother may be
seen in Gen. 22, Judges 8, Ruth 1, II Sam. 17, and Song of Songs [Solomon]
1. In such a system, half brothers and
sisters of different mothers have no relation.
In the genealogies of temple servants in Ezra 2 and Neh. 7, most of the
ancestors have names with feminine ending.
It has been suggested that these ancestors were temple prostitutes whose
offspring became temple servants.
Incising or tattooing the body is
forbidden in Leviticus 19, but there are allusions to such practices in Genesis
4, Isaiah 44, Ezekiel 9, and Zechariah 13; there is no evidence that the marks
were connected with totemism. In
Revelation the different markings—the name of the Lamb and the Father and the
name or number of the beast served to distinguish Christians from beast
worshippers.
The Israelites had tribal standards,
and some of these flags had animal representations. In the blessings of Jacob (Genesis 49) and
Moses (Deuteronomy), several of the tribes are equated with animals; the
symbolism between the two poems is not entirely consistent. The symbolism seems to be mere poetic
metaphor rather than a holdover from totemism.
TOUCH (aptesqai (ap tes thie)) The verb which is always
used of Jesus’ touching or being touched. It implies touch which tends to hold
and even sometimes to cling. This is not
the same as handling or feeling. Much
less is it a casual brush of contact. We
may therefore suppose Jesus really held the leper and the others that he
healed. Jesus’ response to the
disciple’s fear at the Transfiguration was an embrace rather than a mere touch.
TOWEL (lention (len tee on), coarse cloth, apron)
A linen cloth. Jesus’ washing his
disciples’ feet and drying them with a towel was an act of humility.
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TOWER (ﬢלמג (mig dal), pulpit; בחן (bah khan), watch-tower; purgoV (pur gos), castle)
Migdal is the Hebrew word most
often used in the Old Testament for “tower.”
Towers were a common biblical feature, and were located in cities,
vineyards and farm lands; they served chiefly for refuge or defense against
military attack.
Towers mentioned by name include
the following: tower of David tower of Eder tower of Shechem Palestine Jerusalem Jericho Megiddo Lachish Samaria
TOWN CLERK (grammateuV (gram mat yoos), scribe) The
translation of the Greek word in Acts 19.
Elsewhere this term designates the Jewish Scribe.
Because of the shifting patterns
in civic administration and the change in function and status of an office, the
translation of the Greek word is very difficult. Ephesus
It is clear from Acts 19 that the grammateus was the principal municipal
officer of Ephesus
Second, he might be called upon to
draw up the official decrees as approved by the senate and present them to the
assembly. The clerk was in a position to
know much about affairs of state. Hence
he became a more and more dominant figure in these affairs. Third, as executive officer he would be the
liason between the civil administration and the Roman provincial
administration.
For Luke’s purposes it is very
important that the chief executive of Ephesus
T-70
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