Se-Si

SEA (ים (yawm), great river; qalassa (thah las sa), lake)  This term refers to a general gathering of water, specific bodies of water, and structures such as the bronze sea and the sea of glass. 

                 According to the Priestly account, God gathered the waters from the dry land and called them “Seas” (Genesis 1).  The western border of Palestine was frequently designated as the Great Sea or the Western Sea.  There is no evidence that the people of Palestine in biblical times sailed the Mediterranean Sea with fleets of ships, as did their neighbors the Phoenicians.

                 Among the other seas mentioned in the Bible are the Red Sea; the Dead Sea; and the Sea of Galilee.  The Red Sea (“sea of reeds) was the scene of the deliverance of the Hebrews in their flight from Egypt.  The Dead Sea is commonly referred to as the Salt Sea.  The Sea of Galilee, the largest fresh-water lake of Palestine, is frequently mentioned in connection with the ministry of Jesus.

                 The bronze sea was a large basin made of bronze, located in front of the Jerusalem temple, and was a storage place for water which the priest used in their ceremonial washings.  The Sea of Glass refers to a kind of heavenly sea which was before the throne.

           

SEA, MOLTEN  (ים מוצק (yawm  mo tsawk), a cast [metal] sea)  A large vessel made of cast bronze.  Hiram of Tyre made it from the bronze which David had taken as spoil. 

                 The vessel was round, with a diameter of 4.5 meters, its height was 2.3 meters, and its circumference 13.6 meters.  Under the rim were two rows of ornamental gourds which were cast with the vessel.  The oxen served as supports for the bowl.  Josephus assumed that the vessel was a hemisphere and its volume 3,000 baths.  Other have taken the shape to be cylindrical and denied that from the given dimensions the volume of either 2,000 or 3,000 baths was possible.  The probable solution, if there is a solution at all, is that the volumes in both I Kings and II Chronicles are later scribal additions.  The purpose of the molten sea is not given in the account of the Kings.  II Chronicles 4 states that it “was for the priests to wash in.”  In the reign of King Ahaz the sea was taken “from off the bronze oxen . . . and put . . . upon a pediment stone.”  When Babylonians captured Jerusalem in 587, the sea was broken up and its bronze pieces carried to Babylonia.

SEA GULL (שחף (shah kaf))  Any of a family of web-footed sea birds.  These birds, which are gregarious and noisy, frequent sea-coasts and inland waters; their food is fish as well as worms, insects, bird eggs, young birds, trash, etc.  The shakhaph is clearly a bird, and is unclean presumably because it eats live prey or carrion.  The argument that its place in the bird lists points to a land bird depends upon how confident we are that the lists have an intelligible arrangement which we can discover.

                  The 1700s biologist Tristram cites evidence for “many species of Sea-gull, common on the coasts and on the Sea of Galilee.”  Tristram mentions the Common Gull, the Black-headed Gull and the Herring Gull.

SEA OF THE ARABAH  (ים העﬧבה (yawm  haw ‘ah raw baw), sea of the desert [plain])  The lake equated in the Old Testament with the Salt Sea and now generally called the Dead Sea.

SEA OF CHINNERETH.  See Galilee, Sea of.

SEA OF GALILEE.  See Galilee, Sea of.

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SEA OF GLASS, GLASSY SEA  (qalassa ualinh (thah laws sah  yah lee neh))  A vision of John the seer in Revelation 4; 15.  In the vision of the heavenly throne room, this sea is described as “like crystal.”  In Revelation 15 the same glassy sea is “mingled with fire,” probably meaning that it contained or was even composed of the fire of judgment, through which all must past to attain the farther shore of salvation.  

                 The view is widely held that the prototype of the John’s glassy sea is to be sought in the Jewish teaching of an original creation pattern, or that its symbolism may lie in the furnishings of the tabernacle and temple, where purification in the molten sea (a large bronze vessel) was required of priests approaching the sanctuary.  It is likely that we should see in this “sea of glass” a cleansing vessel—an integral part of the equipment of the heavenly tabernacle.  This “sea of glass” is not to be confused with the “lake of fire” (Revelation 19).

SEA OF TIBERIAS. See Galilee, Sea of.

SEACOAST (הים חוף (khof  ha yawm))  The fertile and populous eastern seaboard of the Mediterranean, inhabited in Old Testament times in turn by Canaanites, Philistines, and Phoenicians.

SEAH.  See Weights and Measures.

SEALS AND SCARABS  (ﬨםחו (kho tawm), signet; טבעﬨ (tab bah ‘at), ring; sfragiV (sef rah gees), signet ring)  The first Old Testament (OT) mention of a signet is preserved in the clan legend of Judah and Tamar.  Judah may have owned a cylinder seal, a khotam, which he wore round his neck.  When Pharaoh invested Joseph with royal power, he gave Joseph a tabba’at, a signet ring.  Tabba’at is used for the various rings employed in the construction of the ark, its furniture, and Aaron’s breastplate.                       

                 Passages referring to the Mosaic period which contain the word khotam may be glosses of Priestly documents in the first five books of the OT.  As something conveying power, the use of a royal seal is attested from about 850 B.C.  Jezebel used Ahab’s khotam to authenticate forged letters.  The words of the prophet Jeremiah refers to a sealed deed of purchase of land and an open copy.  When Daniel was cast into the lions’ den, the king sealed it with his signet and those of his lords.  The only factual reference to sealing in the New Testament (NT) is in the account of the closure of the Holy Sepulcher (Matthew 27).

                 The first reference in a figurative sense dates from the 700s B.C.:  “Bind up the testimony, seal the teaching (Isaiah. 8).  The simile “set me as a khotam” upon the heart and the arm occurs in the Song of Songs [Solomon] 8.  The author of the book of Daniel also employs “seal” in a figurative sense (Daniel. 9; 12).  References in the NT to a sphragis, or “seal,” are general, particularly in Revelation 6-9.  The description of the book with seven seals in Revelation 5 is more specific.

                 Archaeology: Mesopotomia, Egypt, and the Aegean—Discoveries in Western Asia during the last hundred years provide more information than any other source about the use of seals in antiquity.  The earliest attempts at the production of crude seals probably date from the 3000s B.C.  Stone “seal-pendants,” which have been found in graves or in the debris of settlements, were either bored through the central axis or shaped and pierced like buttons, so that they could be strung on necklaces or cords.  In ancient Elam, now southwestern Iran, at the old capital of Susa, stamp seals appear during an early phase of the city’s growth.  The designs at Susa show a preference for geometric design.  The main event of the following phase was the invention of writing, represented at Susa by pictographic symbols.

                 With the development of writing, seals in the form of a cylinder came into use.  The outer face was engraved with patterns and signs worked in reverse; the design therefore read correctly when it was impress on any flat or curved surface.  Fine seal-engraving was achieved by the Sumerians, the last phase of which is roughly equivalent to the royal tombs at Ur in the 2400s.  The cylindrical form remained typical of the seals classified as early Akkadian, Kassite, Assyrian, and late Babylonian.  The same shape enjoyed sporadic popularity whenever the influence of these powers extended to other lands.  The impression of a cylinder seal soon became, not merely a mark of ownership or security, but a form of legal assent to a written contract.

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                 Trade relations between Egypt and Crete in remote times seem to have existed, and a marked expansion is noticeable early in the 1000s B.C.  The earliest seals to reach Egypt were cylinders based on Mesopotamian examples.  These Pro Dynastic cylinders of black steatite were very lightly scratched, in comparison with Mesopotamian seals.  By the first Dynasty (2900 B.C.), there was a pictograph of a cylinder seal established as a symbol for words like “seal” and “treasurer” in hieroglyphic texts. 

                 From 3000-2500 cylinder seals were engraved with the names and titles of kings and officials, who used them in administrative business and sealed goods with them.  Stamp seals appear at this time, engraved with barbaric and geometric designs, which can be matched among the stamp seals of Syria and Crete.  The majority were made of soapstone, and the surface was sometimes covered with blue or green glaze, which occasionally filled the engraving, making it impossible to use them as seals.  Seal-amulets were not merely funerary, but were also worn as charms during life, chiefly by women and children.

                 The years 2000-1800 were ones in which the emblem of a scarab was fashioned in stone to form the back of administrative seals.  Egyptian expansion toward the south, periodic forays northward to Syria, and Aegean trade contacts brought with it the need of more officials holding authority under the king, which no doubt stimulated scarab production.  The scarabs’ history can be followed more closely in Palestine than in Egypt, because the ones in Palestine were found where they had lain for millennia, rather than being purchased.

                  Archaeology:  Syro-Palestine—Far removed in time from any other object which resembles a seal is an unbaked cone of clay with a swastika pattern on the base from Neolithic Jericho (5000-4000 B.C.).  The eastern Mediterranean coastal region provides most of the surviving seals from Palestine.  Cylinder seals were used for stamping jars and jar handles before kiln-firing.  They belong to Palestinian Early Bronze Age (2900-2700), contemporary with the First-Third Dynasties in Egypt.  This valuable chronological link was broken in the troubled centuries which followed.  The invention of a system of numerals and linear signs was not begun much before the last centuries of the Early Bronze Age in Palestine.

                 Dating perhaps from around 1900 B.C., the impression of a cylinder and a scarab seal was found on a jar handle.  The scroll border on the scarab is typical of those found in the Middle Kingdom in Egypt, though it is thought that Egyptian designers may have been influenced by Cretan prototypes.  More than one cultural group came into Palestine during the Middle Bronze Age, and each seems to have produced individual styles.

                 The military campaigns of Thutmose III in the mid-1400s B.C. established Egyptian rule over Palestine and part of Syria.  Scarabs bearing his name and those of his immediate successors have been found in Palestinian tombs.  These confirm that some Egyptian control existed until the end of the 18^th or the beginning of the 19^th Dynasty (shortly before and after 1300 B.C.).  Some have the names of Egyptians gods written in Canaanite letters; others have a Canaanite goddess transcribed in hieroglyphs.  The great age of scarabs in Egypt and Palestine ceased with the end of Bronze Age (1200 B.C.)

                  Because of unsettled condition during the early decades of the Hebrew settlement, few cities recovered their former prosperity, and consequently few finds are datable to the first three centuries of the Iron Age (1200-900 B.C.).  With the introduction of Iron, hematite was used for making cone-shaped seals.  Nearly 200 gem seals carved in varieties of quartz have come to light in Israel and Judah; none can be dated before the 800s.  The earliest gem seal still existing is that of Shema, who probably served Jeroboam II.

                 A four-winged scarabaeus engraved above an inscription on a scarab is at least as early as the Shema scarab.  Jar handles stamped with a four- or two-winged symbol come exclusively from Judean sites and range between the 700s and 500s.  Over 550 of these stamps supplemented by others found in 1956-57 at Gibeon, revive the eastern Mediterranean tradition of stamping jar handles, which continued during the Exiles, and which finally became the hallmark of the wine exporters of the Greek-influenced world.

     The largest class of these stamped handles came from the island of Rhodes, which was a key to the southeastern Aegean.  Other Greek islands, notably Chios and Thasos, shared in this trade, which flourished from the 200s to the 100s B.C.  The Greek amphorae on which these stamps occur represent a late offshoot of an eastern Mediterranean trading system which originated in the 3000s B.C.  

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SEASON  (ﬨע (‘at), time; ﬢמוע (mo ‘ed), set time, festival days; זמן (tseh mawn), appointed time; kairoV (kie ros), appointed time, fitting season, a distinctive time period; eorth (eh or teh), solemn feast, public festival) 

     An annually recurring period distinguished by weather, by features of the agricultural year, by position of constellations, and by annual customs.  The Hebrew word tseman means appointed time, which is also one of the meanings of kairos. 

SEAT (ﬤסא (kee seh), royal throne; מושב (mo shawb), dwelling; kaqedra (kah theh dra), prwtokaqedria (pro toe kah theh dreeah), first, most honorable seat)  The biblical data make it difficult to distinguish between “seat,” “chair,” and “stool,” and sometimes between these terms and throne.  Kise’ in most of its occurrences has reference to the royal or divine throne and is so translated.  We can say little about the materials and methods used in constructing this furniture, especially not that which was built in Palestine.

                 The various uses of the word “seat” are: royal seats (dining couches; Solomon’s throne); seat of palanquin; ordinary chairs or stools; synagogue seats (benches along each of two sides); figurative for God’s dwelling place; figurative for establishing injustice in the land (“seat of violence”); ark covering (mercy seat).

SEAT, MOSES’.  The scribes and Pharisees were said by Jesus to sit on Moses’ seat.  The scribes were by long tradition the recognized interpreters of the law of Moses, and seat meant by Jesus is the metaphorical place of honor from which a teacher taught.

SECACAH (ﬤﬤהס, enclosure) A town of Judah in the “wilderness” district, probably to be identified with modern Khirbet es-Samrah, about 5.3 km southwest of Khirbet Qumran, which is near the Dead Sea’s northwest corner.  It is the largest of 3 fortresses in the Buqe’ah; these cities may be among those fortified by Jehoshaphat.

SECOND ADAM  (mellontoV (mel lon tos), one who is of the future).  Phrase used to describe the idea of Christ expressed in Roman 5 in comparing him to Adam.  Christ is a glorified, life-giving Spirit, in whom believers are glorified, in contrast to Adam, who is of the earth and whose sin brought condemnation.

SECOND COMING (parousia (pah roo seeah))  Translation of a Greek word used to summarize the longer phrases used to describe the future coming of Christ;  the word itself does not occur in the New Testament.

SECOND QUARTER  (משנה (me sheh neh), second [district] )  A district of Jerusalem in which Huldah the prophetess dwelt, formed by the west wall of the temple and the oldest northern rampart of the city.

SECRET, MESSIANIC.  The knowledge that Jesus was Messiah and Son of God.  According to Mark, Jesus was not recognized as the Messiah until Peter’s confession at Caesarea Phillipi; the disciples failed to grasp the import of this.  The secret of his nature was made public only at the hearing before the high priest.  This theory of the gospel explained the rejection of Jesus and the obscurity of some of his teaching.  Paul believed that the secret had been withheld from both Gentiles and Jews, but for Christians it is a mystery no longer.  In the John’s Gospel the Baptist recognizes Jesus at once, and Jesus reveals himself to his disciples at the very first.  John chapters 13-17 portray him as explaining the mystery after Judas has left the Upper Room.

SECU  (ﬤוש, watch tower)  A site on the route between Gibeah and Ramah where Saul, sought information about David’s whereabouts.  There are indications that a common noun should be used to translate this word, rather than using it as a place name.

SECUNDUS  (SekoundoV (seh cun dos))  A Thessalonian, companion of Aristarchus; he accompanied Paul from Greece to Jerusalem.

SEED, SEEDTIME.  (ﬧעז (zeh rah))  Wheat barley, and flax were planted between November and January; while chick-peas, cucumbers, lentils, melons, millet, and sesame were planted between January and March.

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SEEING (ﬧאה (rah ‘eh); הזה (khaw tsaw), to see a vision; oraw  (oh ra oh), behold; blepw (bleh po); qeaomai  (theh ah om ahee), gaze; qewrew  (theh oh reh oh), gaze) 

                 Some biblical uses of this term are: experiencing; seeing (one’s desire) on an enemy; seeing visions; recovering sight by the blind (enlightenment); and seeing God (through faith).

                  In the earlier Old Testament narratives, seeing God is believed to be fatal; Moses only sees God’s back.  In the New Testament, to see Jesus and behold his glory is to see the Father.  Those who saw Jesus in resurrection had objectively real experiences.  To have seen the risen Christ was an indispensable qualification for apostleship.  Yet a special beatitude is pronounced on “those who have not seen and yet believe.”

SEGUB  (שגוב, elevated) 1.  The youngest son of Hiel, the man who rebuilt Jericho during Ahab’s reign.  Segub and his brother may have been offered as foundation sacrifices for the new city.  Many modern commentators dispute the theory, holding that the deaths in Heil’s family were popularly linked with the building project.  The editor of Kings considers their deaths the fulfillment of Joshua’s curse against anyone who should rebuild Jericho (I Kings 16).  2.  A great-grandson of the patriarch Judah (I Chronicles 2).

SEINE (מﬤמﬧﬨ (me keh mo ret), fishing-net)  A large draw-net.  The context of Habakkuk 1 suggests that “hook,” “net,” and “seine” are used figuratively to designate the military of Israel’s enemies.  The precise meaning of mikemoret is not clear.

SEIR (שעיﬧ, hairy)  1.  The chief mountain range of Edom.  It extends the entire length of the Edom homeland.  The section north of esh-Shobek begins to decline and is called Jebal.  Its extension to the southwest to the Gulf of Aqabah is the Sha’fat Ibn Jad.  Its width reaches from the Arabah on the west to the desert on the east.  Much of it is a high plateau with rolling hills.  The rest is very rough to nearly impassable.  While heavily wooded at one time, the process of deforestation was completed during World War I.  Seir became the home of Esau and his descendants, the Edomites.  “Seir” is also used as an expression for the Edomite nation.

                 2.  A mountain forming part of Judah’s northern border; usually identified with Saris, about 14 km west of Jerusalem.  It is probably the place of farthest penetration by the Israelites in their abortive effort to enter Canaan from the south.  Since Canaanites never lived in the region occupied by Edom, it seems probable that “Seir” of Joshua 15 is meant in Deuteronomy 1 as well.

SEIRAH  (שעיﬧה, she-goat)  It is not clear from the context whether the word is a city-name or not.  Ehud, after Eglon king of Moab, “passed beyond the sculptured stones and escaped to Seirah”; the sculptured stones were possibly the naturally shaped hills in the Ghor near the Jordan River.  It has usually been assumed that Seirah is to be sought in Ephraim territory, but a location east of the Jordan in Moabite territory is equally possible. 

SELA  (סלע, rock)  1.  A fortress city of Edom, conquered by Amaziah of Judah and renamed.  It is to be identified with Um-el Bayyarah, the great acropolis which dominates the basin in which the Nabatean city Petra was built.  It is situated on Edom’s western boundary, about 32 km from its southern extremity, and was evidently intended to protect the southern capital of Teman, located about 5 km east.  It is probable that King Amaziah marched east down the King’s Highway as afar as Teman, then turned westward and took the fortress from behind.  Another Sela in Edom, marked by a village of the same name, is found a few kilometers west-northwest of Buseireh.

     2.   Place on the border of the Amorites in the time of the Judges, apparently       in Judah; its site is unknown.

     3.   A place in Moab, mentioned rather obscurely in a prophecy of destruction       (Isaiah 16).

SELAH.  See Music

SELA-HAMMAHLEKOTH  (ﬨסלע המחלקו, rock of smoothness (i.e. escape))  King James Version translation of this term.  The New Revised Standard Version uses Rock of Escape.  See Escape, Rock of.

SELED  (ﬢסל, from the root meaning “leap,” or “hard”)  The first-born son of Nadab of Judah; he was childless.

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SELEUCIA  (Seleukia)  The name of several cities, all situated in the Middle East and all founded during the Greek period.

     1.   See Seleucia in Syria entry in this section and in the Old Testament Apocrypha/Influences Outside the Bible section of the Appendix.

     2.  Seleucia in Mesopotamia—This city was founded by Seleucus Nicator in 332 B.C., and was intended to be his capital in Mesopotamia.  It was cosmopolitan, having a mixed population of Macedonians, Greeks, Syrians, and Jews.  When the city was destroyed in 164 A.D., the best of Greek civilization died with it. 

     3.   Seleucia in Palestine—Jewish historian Josephus informs us that a certain Seleucia was among the places which had previously belonged to Syria’s decaying kingdom but were now in the hands of the Jews.  This Seleucia was a city in Bashan, situated on the east side of Lake Merom in the extreme north of Palestine; the actual site is unknown.  The city magistrates were elected by the people on the Greek model and wielded wide powers of government in the city.  Josephus fortified the place as a center of revolt against the Romans. 

SELEUCIA IN SYRIA.  Seleucia Pieria was a valuable city-fortress in the north of Syria, on a mountain spur which rose more than 1,200 meters above the sea, high enough to make Cyprus, over 100 km away, visible on a clear day.  Seleucia was surrounded by terraced cliffs on three sides and lay 6 to 8 kilometers north of the mouth of the River Orontes.  From the sea the upper part of the city could be approached only by way of a steep and twisty stairway.  There was a lower part of suburbs, fortified strongly within the same walls.

                 The ancient city was resplendent with many temples.  As one of the cities of the Syrian Tetrapolis, it prided itself on its loyalty to Greek ideals.  The ruins of the ancient great road connecting Antioch with its port city of Seleucia can still be seen.  Excavation began here in 1937; the finds included houses and the market, the large Doric Temple, and a memorial church, the Martyrion, in the lower city.  On or near the site of this city stands the modern Samandag or Suediah, in Turkey.  It is no longer a port, because the constant depositing of silt, flowing down the river Orontes, has converted the ancient harbor into a level, marshy expanse.  It figured in the missionary journey of Barnabas and Saul.

                 When Barnabas and Saul and John Mark, in 49 A.D., sailed away from here in a merchant vessel, and when, near 100 A.D., the holy martyr Ignatius, Antioch’s bishop, passed through this port on his way to Rome’s wild beasts, Seleucia still enjoyed free city status, confirmed by the Romans in 70 A.D.  It was the base of an imperial fleet, early in Augustus’ reign.  The Romans cut a tunnel 7 meters high and 200 meters deep into the rock, apparently with the aim of deflecting the waters of a mountain stream.  An inscription suggests that the work was done around the time that Titus visited Palestine in order to quell the Jewish rebellion.

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SELF-CONTROL (אין מעצﬧ לﬧוחו (‘ah yeen  mah ‘eh tsawr  leh roo kho), no restraint of the spirit; swfro-nismoV (sof ro nees mos), soundness of mind; egkrateia (eg krah tayeeah), temperance)  The one without self-control in Proverbs 25 has no defense against anger, lust and the other unbridled emotions.

                 In the New Testament (NT) “self-control” is used as a translation for words which come from two distinctly different Greek roots.  Sophronismos was a virtue common to all Greek ethical thought since the days of Plato, who defines sophrosune as “self-discipline in certain desires and pleasures.” 

                 The other occurrences of “self-control” are translations of the noun egkrateia, meaning the control which one exercises of something or someone including one’s self. It represents the ideal of the free person’s having power over their own desires and emotions so that they do not become a slave to base pleasures.  In the NT, Paul uses egkrateuontai to mean the control of sexual desire.  In Acts 24, egrkateias is the subject of Paul’s discussion with Felix, but it is difficult to discover just what connotation the word was here. 

                 Two things in particular may be said as one compares the idea of “self-control” in Greek literature and in the Bible.  The fact of its rarity makes it clear that it does not play important part in the thinking of the biblical writers.  The Greek ideal looked toward a perfecting of the self into a harmonious whole as a work of which one might be justly proud.  For the Christian, egkrateia is one of the “fruits of the Spirit,” along with love, joy, peace, etc.  Humans can attain perfection only as they rely more and more upon God and not upon themselves, and as they see more clearly the meaning for themselves of the work of Christ and of the Holy Spirit.    

SELF-DENIAL (aparnhsasqw eauton (ap ar neh sas tho  ay oo ton), disregard one’s self)  A concept which may be seen in both the Old Testament (OT) and New Testament (NT).  In general, self-denial is the self’s rejection, the renunciation of one’s desires or ambitions in favor of a higher goal.  It is not prominent in the OT and NT.  In the OT there are forms of partial self-denial such as disciplinary restriction and prohibitions for some individuals.  Self as such is not a clearly expressed general principle in OT mainstream thought.  Self-denial becomes the obligation of persons who must forego their inclinations in favor of a special calling.

                 One may describe as forms of partial self-denial certain acts of piety, fasting, charity, and self-restraint mentioned in the NT.  These practices do not receive a major emphasis in the NT.  In the Sermon on the Mount, an added dimension of self denial is imparted to almsgiving and fasting when men are exhorted to carry out these duties in secrecy and without ostentation.

                 The strongest and clearest expression of self-denial in its radical, distinctive NT sense is found in the saying of Jesus:  “If any one would come after me, let that one deny self and take up a cross and follow me.”  The meaning of radical self-denial in Jesus’ teaching is clear: it is utter self-rejection in favor of following Christ.  In its negative sense, self-denial is the rejection of one’s life, property, and welfare.  In its positive aspect, self-denial is but the first step in the total act of committing one’s self to Christ.  All 3 Synoptic gospels place Jesus’ primary saying about self-denial in the first prediction of his own suffering and death.  Even though self-denial as such is not mentioned in Paul’s writings, he nevertheless understands the Christian life in terms of sacrificial self-giving.  This spiritual-moral process of participating in the death and resurrection of Christ includes the old self’s renunciation in order that a new self might become reality in and through Christ.

SEMACHIAH (סמﬤיהו, whom the Lord upholds)  One of the gatekeepers of the sanctuary (I Chronicles 26).

SEMEIN  (Semein; Greek spelling of Hebrew semei, meaning “renowned”)  An ancestor     of Jesus (Luke 3).

SEMITE.  A person belonging to those peoples of humankind either having common descent from Shem the son of Noah or speaking one of the Semitic languages.  This is a linguistic, and not a racial classification.  The descendants of Shem are found in the list of Genesis 10.  Geographically, they spread from Lydia of Asia Minor (i.e. Turkey) through greater Syria, Assyria, to Persia.  The northern boundary was in Armenia; the southern on the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.  The Canaanites and Abyssinians seem to be classified as sons of Ham, even though these languages are Semitic.

                 The original home of the Semites is difficult to deduce.  At the dawn of civilization traces of the Semitic languages are found all over the Fertile Crescent.  They were already in the area of the Tigris and Euphrates before the great city-states were established.  Semitic nomads are thought to have successively engulfed the Fertile Crescent from the eastern deserts.  The Semitic family today includes most of the inhabitants of Syria, Iraq, Jordan, Israel, Arabia, and a high percentage of Turkey, Lebanon, and North Africa. 

                 Genesis contains some suggestions of the pre-Mosaic Semitic religion.  There was belief in local deities.  The name El for “god” seems to have been widespread among the Semites and probably indicates a great high god.  The Semites are not a race; they are a group of people speaking related languages.  Aramaic may have been the language of diplomacy at the middle of the thousand years before the Christian era.  Usually there are 3 divisions made in the Semitic languages: Eastern (Akkadian); Northwestern (Aramaic, Syria, Samaritan, Nabatean, Canaanite, Phoenician, Moabite, Hebrew); and Southern (Arabic, Sabean, Minean, Ethiopic.

                 There seems to be a common stock in vocabulary and a parallel structure to the known Semitic languages.  Most of the languages added vowels signs late in their development.  All the languages are written from right to left except Akkadian and Ethiopic.  The basic root form of the verb was the third person singular.  There are many verb forms, Hebrew and Aramiac have seven.  There is no neuter gender.  The influence of Semitic languages was spread by contact, invasion, and colonization in Egypt, Cappadocia, and Tunisia, to India, and throughout Africa and into Europe.  From these Semitic-speaking people have come Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.  They seem to have been responsible for the invention of the alphabet some time in the 1000s B.C.    

SENAAH  (סנאה, thorny)  Head of a family or clan among the exiles returned from Babylon, and among those who aided Nehemiah with the repair of the Jerusalem wall (Nehemiah 3).

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SENATE.  In the Roman Empire, a hereditary legislative, administrative, and judiciary body made up of 600 members of the aristocracy.  The property qualifications were 1,000,000 sesterces.  The group met twice a month in or near Rome to approve the emperor’s report and to make decrees.  The Senate had some power in choosing emperors, which they gradually lost.  A few provinces away from the frontier remained under direct senatorial control, and certain religious and civil appointment were open only to Senators.

SENEH (סנה, thorn bush)  A peak at the pass of Michmash, opposite another crag called Bozez, about 11 km northeast of Jerusalem.  Seneh is mentioned only in an incidental way in the description of Jonathan’s approach to the camp of Philistine; Seneh was most likely on the south side of the pass.

SENIR (שניﬧ)  According to Deuteronomy 3 the Amorite name of Mount Hermon.  According to Ezekiel 27, Senir was famous for its fir trees used for shipbuilding.

SENNACHERIB  (סנחﬧיב, in Akkadian it means “Sin [-god] replace the (Lost) Brothers!”)  King of Assyria and Babylonia (705-681 B.C.) son of Sargon II and father of Esarhaddon.

                 Sennarcherib is one of those very few kings of the Neo-Assyrian Empire who came to throne without civil war or other complication.  Although Sennacherib’s policy toward Babylonia resulted in the destruction of that city, he made every attempt to avoid that by giving Babylon special political status rather than incorporating it into the Empire.  The crucial event of Sennacherib’s reign was certainly the destruction of Babylon.  All other campaigns of Sennacherib were of minor importance.

                 Two years after the accession of Sennacherib, a Babylonian, under the name of Marduk-zakirshumi II (703) ascended the throne.  Merodach-baladan, having returned from exile in Elam, deposed the new king and took over Babylonia with Elamite military help.  Merodach-baladan attempted to unite the warring Chaldean and Aramean tribal chieftains, and he seems also to have had as allies various Arab tribes and to have planned a diversionary maneuver by sending messages to Assyrian vassals in the west to incite them to rebel.  Sennacherib defeated the allied Elamites and Chaldeans near Kish, whereupon Babylonia surrendered. 

                 Sidon’s and Tyre’s kings threw off Assyria’s yoke, rebelling thus openly for the time instead of paying tribute as had been the policy up to then.  When Sennacherib appeared all defiance collapsed quickly in Phoenicia, but the Assyrian had to fight the south, where it easily defeated a sizable Egyptian army at Eltekiah.  Sennacherib summoned Hezekiah to pay tribute, which the latter paid only after an Assyrian army started to lay siege to his city.  The action against Judah was only a typical punitive expedition and, as such, successfully handled in a short time.  The readiness of Sennacherib to take tribute instead of conquering the city actually saved it.  Sennacherib may have had some respect for Samaria’s tenacity; he may have realized that the rebellion in the west was a diversionary move of Merodach-baladan; or he may have had other reasons.

                 The Old Testament report includes a lively and anecdotal story centering around the prophet Isaiah, who kept Hezekiah from surrendering with the prophetic promise that the Lord would make Sennacherib return to his country.  Then the text tells us that the “angel of the Lord” slew in one night 185,000 of Sennacherib’s soldiers, thus forcing the king to return to Nineveh, where he was killed by his two sons.  Obviously, two historical events have been telescoped in this report, since his departure and death are separated by 20 years. 

                 However suddenly Sennacherib left for home, he could not have suffered substantial losses by any means, because the entire region would have rebelled.  There are a number of difficulties in connection with Sennacherib’s campaign, such as the fact that the Bible mentions Tirhakah as pharaoh instead of his predecessor Shabaka.  From the surviving cuneiform evidence, there was only one campaign of that king into Palestine.

                 Meanwhile, the Assyrian puppet Bel-ibni was no match for the wily Merodach-baladan, who set up a certain Shuzubu as Babylon’s king.  Again Sennacherib had to march as conqueror into Babylon.  He drove Shuzubu out of the capital but failed to capture Merodach-baladan.  Sennacherib deported many Chaldeans, and granted the city a special political position, making his son Adadnadinshumi king of Babylon (700 B.C.). 

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                 After 6 peaceful years, Sennacherib realized he needed to turn against Elam, since Elam was always supporting Babylonian rebellions; Sennacherib’s intention was politically sound.  In order to be able to attack the coastal cities, Sennacherib had sailors from Tyre, Sidon, and Cyprus build ships on the upper Euphrates.  In spite of a heavy storm, coastal cities were attacked and taken, after heavy fighting.  The Elamites counterattacked swiftly, striking at Sennacherib’s over-extended supply lines.  They advanced downstream, took Sennacherib’s son prisoner in Babylon, and made Nergal-ushezib king of that city.  Sennacherib defeated Elam near Nippur, which caused a rebellion; the new Elamite king avoided an engagement with the Assyrians.

                Sennacherib accused the king of Babylon of handing over the treasures of Esagila to procure another Elamite alliance.  A large army of Elamites, Babylonians, and their confederates from among the tribes of the mountains and the plains faced Sennacherib when he returned to restore Assyrian prestige.  The battle took place near Babylon at Hallule, and the Babylonian Chronicle calls it a defeat of Assyria.  Although Sennacherib captured at Hallule the son of his old foe Merodach-baladan, the Babylonian king remained in power.  Babylon had to face the enraged Sennacherib alone, and he destroyed the city after a short siege on his 8^th campaign (689).  We know of this utter destruction only from the Bavian inscription of Sennacherib. 

                 For the 8 remaining years of the king’s reign we have no reports on warlike activities.  On the fronts toward the north and the northwest, Sennacherib’s position was evidently consolidated.  His building activities were concentrated in the new capital of Nineveh for which he erected an aqueduct in the ancient near East.  His personal interest in technology is reflected in many of his inscriptions and shows also in his military planning.  His end is still shrouded in mystery.  According to the Babylonian Chronicle, he was murdered in 681 by one of his sons, Adrammelech, Sharezer, and Esarhaddon.  From Esarhaddon’s inscription we learn that he was made crown prince over the opposition of the elder sons of Sennacherib.

SENTRY  (בעל פקﬢﬨ (ba’ al  peh kee dote), master of oversight)  A guard, usually armed, stationed at a specific point to oversee the passage of persons to and from that point.

SEORIM  (שעﬧים, barley)  A priest to whom the 4^th lot fell, supposedly in David’s organization of the temple.  This chose the period in which this part of the priesthood would serve. (Note: this system came into affect 700 years after David, from the Chronicler (roughly 250 B.C.) to the destruction of the temple in 70 A.D.). 

SEPHAR (ﬧספ, numbering)  A place mentioned as one of the limits of the settlements of the Joktanites, “from Mesha in the direction of Sephar to the hill country of the east” (Genesis 10).  While two cities in Yemen have been identified as Sephar, it possible that sephar is a common noun meaning “border country.”

SEPHARAD  (ﬧﬢספ)  Probably to be identified as Sardis, the capital of Lydia in Asia Minor (Obadiah 20); the Aramaic name of Sardis is spelled identically in a bilingual inscription found at Sardis itself.  The interpretation of Obadiah 20 depends upon the date of its writing (various theories offer 455, 394, or 349 B.C.).  Sardis as an oriental trade center qualifies as a probable location for an early Jewish colony.

SEPHARVAIM (ספﬧוים)  A city of unknown location in Syria or Mesopotamia.  After Samaria’s fall in 722 B.C., the Assyrian king Sargon II brought people from different places including Sepharvaim to Samaria.  Probably it is here a word distorted from the Assyrian “Shabarain,” the Hebrew equivalent of which is “Sibraim.”

SEPTUAGINT. See the Introduction to the Bible Versions section of the Appendix.

SEPULCHER.  See Tomb.

SEPULCHER, HOLY.  See Holy Sepulcher.

SEPULCHERS OF THE KINGS.  See Tombs of the Kings.

SERAH  (ﬧהש)  A daughter and probably a clan or family of Asher; a sister of Imnah, Ishvah, Ishvi, and Beriah, with whom she went into Egypt with Jacob.  According to Jewish tradition Serah was named with sons of Asher because she was the head of a great family which was included among Asher’s families.  The prominence of Serah in the genealogical tables led rabbis to infer there was something extraordinary in her history.

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SERAIAH  (ﬧיהש, Yahweh is prince)  1.  King David’s secretary during the time when the Davidic kingdom was at its peak (II Sam 8).  He is called Sheva in II Sam. 20, Shavisha in I Chron. 18, and Shisha in I Kings 4. 

     2.  A quartermaster, the son of Neriah, who accompanied King Zedekiah on a journey to Babylon in 594 B.C.  Jeremiah’s oracle was to be read in Babylon and then sunk in the Euphrates (Jeremiah 51).  Undoubtedly Seraiah was part of a caravan which made its way to Babylon to renew Zedekiah’s pledge of loyalty to Nebuchadnezzar.  The oracle by the prophet which Seraiah carried had one purpose: to plant the Word of the Lord in Babylon, where after many years of exile, it would take inevitable effect in the fall of Babylon. 

     3.  The chief priest who was serving in Jerusalem at the time when the city was captured and destroyed by King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon in 587 B.C. (II Kings 25; Jeremiah 52).  He was taken before Nebuchadnezzar and killed, in order to make Judah’s subjection complete.  In I Chronicles 6 he is said to be the son of Azariah and the father of Jehozadak, who was taken into exile by Nebuchadnezzar; Ezra also claims descent from Seriah.  Thus it can be assumed that Ezra went into exile with his older brother Jehozadak.

     4.  One of the captains of Judean forces which still remained at large in the open country after the capture and destruction of Jerusalem in 587 B.C. (II Kings 25; Jeremiah 40).  He and his men submitted to Governor Gedaliah at Mizpah.  However, Gedaliah, his officials and guards were assassinated by Ishmael of the royal Davidic house.  Seriah, the other captains, and their forces, fearful for their lives, fled to Egypt.

     5.  The second son of Kenaz; the brother of Othniel; the father of Joab (I Chronicles 4)

     6.  A Simeonite; the father of Joshibiah; the son of Asiel; and the grandfather of Jehu (I Chronicle 4).

     7.  One of those who returned with Zerubabbel out of exile in Babylon to Judah  (Ezra 2).

     8.  One who set his seal to the covenant made between God and the people in Nehemiah’s day (Neh. 10).

      9.  One of the “chiefs of the priests” (Nehemiah 11, 12) who returned with Zerubbabel out of exile in Babylon.  He was automatically granted residence in Jerusalem.  He is called Azariah in I Chronicles 9.

           10.  An officer of King Jehoiakim of Judah in the days of the prophet Jeremiah (Jeremiah 36).  In 604 B.C., he was commanded by the king to imprison Jeremiah and Baruch, but they escaped.

SERAPHIM (ﬧפיםש, venomous serpents) Winged celestial beings of uncertain identity (serpents?).  See Angels.

SERED (ﬧﬢש, fear) Oldest son of Zebulun; ancestral head of the “family of the Seredites” (Gen. 46; Num. 26). 

SERMON ON THE MOUNT.  A discourse of Jesus in the early part of his ministry and recorded by Matthew (Matthew 5-7).  The four parts include:  the Beatitudes (blessings); social duties in a series of contrasts between Jesus’ teaching and the ancient legal tradition; private religious duties of almsgiving, prayer, and fasting; and instruction on the religious life’s inner quality, in the form of short parables.

                 In Luke there is a corresponding, but much shorter, discourse commonly called the Sermon on the Plain.  Comparison of the two sermons suggests that they are elaboration of an earlier discourse contained in a source used by both evangelists.  The Sermon on the Mount is generally held to have unique importance in disclosing the teaching of Jesus on matters of conduct and in presenting some of his most challenging demands.

                 Matthew’s account of the public ministry of Jesus begins after the death of John the Baptist.  His first public act was the choice of four disciples.  Matthew follows the pattern laid by Mark, but between Mark 1:39 and 40 he inserts the Sermon on the Mount.  The discourse is absent from Mark though there are parallels to six of the separate sayings in different contexts in Mark.  Luke’s account of the public ministry begins in Nazareth; Luke follows Mark quite closely.  After the healing theme is mentioned a second time, there is a short discourse.  Almost all the sayings in the discourse have parallels in the Sermon on the Mount, but in different order and sometimes differently phrased.

                 Written vs. Oral Tradition—The Sermon on the Mount is more than three times as long as Luke’s discourse.  It has roughly 28 verses with parallels in Luke 6, 31 verses with parallels elsewhere in Luke.  The Sermon on the Mount may be the original form of a discourse which Luke shortened by dispersing some of the material throughout his gospel and omitting the rest.  It is more commonly held that both Matthew and Luke had access to a source which contained a teaching discourse.  Most Protestant scholars use the Symbol “Q” to designate the material common to Matthew and Luke but not found in Mark (See Q).

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                 Among the material peculiar to Luke the four woes may have been introduced into chapter 6 from elsewhere or composed by Luke; it is not easy to be certain about their proper position.  Other material in Luke also found in Matthew’s sermon has parallels in Luke 9-18.  And the sayings of Luke 11, joined by the catchword “lamp,” appear separately at Matthew 5 and 6.  Luke’s context of these sayings seems more likely than Matthew’s to represent the underlying source.  The parallels to the sayings in Matthew 5 and 6 are so different in wording that they seem to come from separate versions of the Q material.  It is probable that the Q material with parallels in Luke 9 and 18 formed no part of the sermon as it stood in the source but was introduced by Matthew when he was compiling the Sermon on the Mount.

                 The material peculiar to Matthew mainly comprises 5 beatitudes.  It may be held that the material was originally present and was omitted by Luke because its strongly Jewish interest would be uncongenial to Gentile readers.  It may be that Matthew’s special material came from another discourse which also, perhaps, began with beatitudes.  The old law citations are in Matthew only, but the corresponding commandments of Jesus have parallels in Luke.  In this passage Luke may have performed surgery, but it seems a simpler and more understandable procedure if Matthew was combining and reshaping material of 2 collections of sayings.

                 Thus it may probably, though not certainly, be held that Luke reproduced and slightly expanded a Q sermon whose extent is roughly indicated by the verses common to Matthew’s and Luke’s discourses.  This does not imply that Matthew’s material and arrangement can be neglected.  Each saying must be judged on its own merits.  Luke gave his sermon the character of a public manifesto.  There are strong indications that the sermon in the source was addressed to disciples only.

                 It is open to question whether the sermon in Q represents a remembered discourse of Jesus or a collection of separate sayings preserved in the oral tradition from which all written sources arose.  The Synoptic gospels are short units of teaching or narrative strung together by some indication of time or place, by catchwords or by common themes.  The fact that some sayings in the Sermon on the Mount appear in totally different contexts in Luke shows that the evangelists lacked an authoritative tradition about their original contexts.

                 It is clear from I Corinthians 7 that a tradition of the teaching of Jesus was known to Paul.  It may reasonably be supposed that sayings of Jesus were widely remembered throughout the early church.  Some sayings of Jesus were current in variant forms with identical meaning. Part of Matthew 7:16 matches part of Luke 6:44, and both of these match the meaning of James 3:12; all of these are variation of a familiar proverb.  The thought of forbearance in judging in Matthew 7:1-2 is repeated with amplifications in Luke 6:37-38; and Paul appeals to it as a familiar principle in Romans 2:1-3.  Matthew 5:16 is reproduced in I Peter 2:12 in a form adapted to the Gentile mission.  Both Matthew 5:44 and Luke 6:28 seem to have influenced the content of Romans 12:14.  These similarities suggest that, at least in circumstances of hardship and persecution, the early Christians had for their encouragement a group of saying of Jesus.

                 There are other possible parallels to sayings in the Sermon on the Mount.  James 5:12 looks like a concise summary of Matthew 5:35-37.  “Repay no one evil for evil” (Roman 12:17) may be said to convert Matthew 5:39 and Luke 6:29 into a generalization.  Possibly Phillipians 4:6 generalizes the teaching against anxiety.  The passage James 5:1-3 has some verbal reminiscences of Matthew 6:19-20.  James 1:5 could be an expansion of Matthew 7:7 and Luke 11:9.  A study of the meaning of sayings in the Sermon on the Mount needs to take into account the intention of the evangelists, the modification of sayings in the course of their preservation, and the meaning of the sayings in their original setting in the ministry of Jesus.

                 Form of the Sayings—Some sayings are simple commands.  A special case of such authority is “You have heard it said . . . but I say to you . . .”  This formula is undoubtedly an adaptation of a common rabbinic device which contrasted what was “heard” in a particular passage of scripture with broader interpretation that could be urged either from other passages of scripture or by logical demonstration.  In most passages, the authoritative phrase:  “I say to you,” is more prophetic than rabbinic.

                 To other commands a warning is added.  The first part of the saying is no more than a proverbial wisdom; the second part converts it into a warning that applies to the end of this age.  Promise and warning are found together in the wisdom saying in Matthew 6.  Closely related to the commandment with a promise is the commandment with a purpose (e.g. “Let your light so shine before men that they may . . . give glory to your Father who is in heaven”; Matthew 5). 

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                 Other commandments are provided with various kinds of argument or demonstration.  The general command is followed by pieces of proverbial wisdom, and the simple rabbinic argument that depends on a vivid awareness of God:  if God feeds the birds, he will certainly feed you (the end of Matthew 6).  The end of Matthew 5 has a commandment with a purpose—to behave as God does—followed by the Golden Rule (widely quoted in rabbinic and other writings), and then the direct commandment of love for enemies. 

                 Among wisdom sayings may be included the sayings on serving 2 masters, trees and fruit, 2 rabbinic rulings, and a dark saying or riddle.  Here also belong the simple comparisons and parables (e.g. the speck and the log; and the salt and the lamp).  The latter example is used differently in Mark and Luke and so handed down without a standard application.  The Beatitudes belong to wisdom and prophetic sayings; they are a common type in the Psalms, and are associated with future benefits.  The remaining prophetic sayings are dominated by the person of the speaker.  One of them is Matthew 5:17, which is one of the notable “I have come” sayings.

                 Because the wisdom-type sayings can be paralleled from proverbial and rabbinic sources, it has been suggested that they may have been attributed to Jesus at an early stage in the tradition.  On this view the distinctive element in the teaching of Jesus was the prophetic utterance.  It may be forcefully argued that Jesus availed himself of familiar proverbial wisdom and simple rabbinic teaching devices in order to convey a primarily prophetic message.  On either view, the speaker of the Sermon on the Mount is not so much lawgiver, teacher, or rabbi as prophet of the final will and action of God.    

            The Hebrew prophets frequently uttered their oracles in poetical form.  Examples are numerous in the sayings of Jesus.  For parallelism using synonyms we have Matthew 7:7-8:  “Ask, and it will be given you; search, and you will find; knock, and the door will be opened for you.  For everyone who asks receives, and everyone who searches finds, and for everyone who knocks, the door will be opened.”  For step parallelism, in which each line develops the thought of the preceding one, we have Luke 12:24:  “Consider the ravens; they neither sow nor reap; they have neither storehouse nor barn; yet God feeds them.”  It important to observe the poetic form is not always preserved in both Matthew and Luke.  Matthew breaks the preceding parallelism with: “They neither sow nor reap nor gather into barns.”

                 Interpretation of Beatitudes—In both gospels, the Beatitudes have first place and provide the keynote.  A comparative study of the two forms reveals the intentions of the evangelists and the original purport of the sayings (See comparison on next page).  Luke’s four beatitudes are balanced by four woes.  Luke’s beatitudes give a vivid impression of hearers’ being directly addressed; in Matthew they read like generalization.  Blessings in the Old Testament (OT) are often expressed in the 3^rd person.  Woes, however, are often expressed in the 2^nd person.  It may be that Luke, adding the woes changed 3^rd to 2^nd person to secure uniformity.

                 The beatitude on the poor reflects a strong a characteristic of OT religion in which God is the vindicator of the poor and needy.  In biblical tradition the word “poor” even developed an almost technical meaning, especially during the time when poor people of firm and simple piety who maintained the faith against pagan enticements.  Matthew’s phrase “the poor in spirit” is intended to make this fact clear.  Luke’s “poor” beatitude is closely related to his concern for the poor and reflects conditions in first-century Palestine, where a large class of destitute, unemployed, and landless peasants lived side by side with wealthy farmers.   There is no essential difference of meaning between “kingdom of God” (Luke), and “kingdom of heaven” (Matthew); both mean God in God’s sovereignty.         

                  Beatitudes

                                    Luke                                                        Matthew

[Luke 6:20b; 24]: “Blessed are you who           [Matthew 5:3]:  “Blessed are the poor 
 are poor, for yours is the kingdom                       in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom

    of God . . . But woe to you who are rich,            of heaven.”

    for you have received your compensation.”

      [Luke 6:21a; 25]:  “Blessed are you who              [Matthew 5:6]: “Blessed are those 

       are hungry now, for you will be filled . . .             who hunger and thirst for
   Woe to you who are full now, for you                  righteousness, for they will be

       will be hungry.”                                                 filled.”

[Luke 6:21b; 25b]: “Blessed are you who         [Matthew 5:4]: “Blessed are those 
weep now, for you will laugh . . .                         who mourn, for they will be 

        Woe to you who are laughing now,                     comforted.”
        for you will mourn and weep.”

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[Luke 6:22; 26]:  “Blessed are you when        [Matt. 5:11-12]: “Blessed are you when
people hate you, exclude you, revile you,            people revile you and persecute 
and defame you on the Son of Man’s               you and utter ... all kinds of evil
account . . .  Woe to you when all speak          evil against you on my account.
well of you; that is what their ancestors            Rejoice and be glad, for your 
did to the false prophets.”                                reward  is great in heaven, for in 

                                                                               the same way they persecuted 
                                                                      the prophets who were before you.”
     

                 The beatitude on the hungry doubtless reflects the OT theme of God’s readiness to relieve, not only physical, but also spiritual hunger.  Matthew reads “hunger and thirst for righteousness.”  The phrase would refer to those who long intensely for the divine vindication.  The word “righteousness” can mean right action on humankind’s part.  But “righteousness” can also mean right action on God’s part, and in the later chapters of Isaiah often means the divine vindication and salvation.

                 The beatitude on the unhappy may perhaps be illustrated in the OT poetry of the Exile and the return.  The Beatitudes as a whole are close to the promises of Isaiah 61:1-2.  Matthew’s beatitude, with meaning similar to Luke but different wording, must be seen against the actual distress of an occupied country, and the devout Jewish expectation of the “consolation of Israel.”

                 The beatitude on the persecuted predicts suffering for the disciples.  The beatitude belongs to a later stage in the ministry of Jesus when, according to Mark the theme of suffering was uppermost in his mind.  The content of the blessing is a great reward in heaven, where “heaven” is a substitute for the divine name and not the future state of the righteous.  These four beatitudes are addressed to people who are poor, hungry, and miserable and who expect to be harshly treated.  To them is promised a share in the divine sovereignty.  The teaching thus introduced is fittingly called an ethic of grace.    

            Other Beatitudes from Matthew:

[Matthew 5:5]:  “Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth.”

[Matthew 5:7]:  “Blessed are the merciful, for they will receive mercy.”

[Matthew 5:8]:  “Blessed are the pure in heart, for they will see God.”

[Matthew 5:9]:  “Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called children of God.”

[Matthew 5:10]: “. . . are those who are persecuted for righteousness’ sake; theirs is the kingdom of heaven.”

                 The remaining beatitudes in Matthew are spoken, not to people in certain situations such as poverty or persecution, but to people of certain character—i.e. humble, merciful, pure-hearted, and peacemaking.  The purity of heart required in Matthew 5 for seeing God is another way of saying “appearing before God”; this phrase is also found in Psalm 24, just as God recognizing peacemakers is found in Psalm 34.

                 The promises of these beatitudes cannot easily be pressed into the same mold as that of the prophetic beatitudes of Q.  Matthew’s beatitudes are wisdom sayings which sum up a number of themes prominent in the teaching of Jesus.  As a whole, with added sayings and changes of wording, Matthew’s beatitudes lean somewhat heavily toward wisdom teaching and must be balanced by the proclamation in Luke.  One type helps to interpret the other; both together make up the teaching of Jesus The ethical instruction of Jesus cannot be divorced from his prophetic announcement of the kingdom of God.

                 Interpretation of Luke’s Sermon— Love’s radical demands are stated with sharp clarity in 6:27-28.  They are more than counsels of prudence for the weak before the strong.  They require the positive action of love:  praying for and blessing opponents, and of non-retaliation in painful personal encounters.  Then is stated the Golden Rule; anyone who acts accordingly must try to put themselves in another person’s place.

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                 The argument in verses 32-34 suggests that the original context of this group of sayings was in an exposition of the commandment.  Love for neighbor is to be so conceived that people do their acts of kindness without expecting any return.  Their sufficient reward is that they are acting like God.  This extension of the meaning of “neighbor” also transforms the meaning of “love,” so that love is not called forth merely by worth in the loved object.  Since God is absolutely sovereign, his love cannot proceed from self-interest.

                 Certain consequences in word and deed follow from the command to be merciful as God is merciful (v. 36).  They may have been collected with an eye on the early Christian communities’ inner life, but they may originally have been spoken in answer to Pharisaic criticisms.  The presupposition of the sayings that people who have received God’s mercy are bound to share and exercise it, made them readily adaptable for the Christian communities.

                 The proverbial parable in verse 39 is used with the general meaning that people do not see the way sufficiently well to be able unerringly to condemn others.  Its general sense is that people cannot expect to teach others to see further than they see.  The meaning of the parable of trees and fruit (verses 43-44) is that as the fruit of a tree depends on the nature of the tree, so a person’s actions depend on the “treasure of his heart.”  The question of verse 46 introduces the call to decision.  If one addresses Jesus respectfully as “Lord,” one presumably assents to his teaching even one does not put it into practice.  Matthew’s version is more rhythmical than Luke’s and corresponds well with the Palestinian scene.

                 The Sermon on the Plain begins and ends with the note of forthcoming crisis.  The concluding parable calls all to decide whether they will take their stand on the words of Jesus.  The central teaching is a description of God’s sovereignty as absolute love, and confronts all with the kingdom of God as something to be shared and shown forth.  The sermon presents the kingdom as “already here and yet still to come.”

                 Interpretation of Matthew’s Sermon—The salt metaphor, handed down with different phrasings and applications, was originally a warning to Israel; it begins Matthew’s sermon after the Beatitudes (5:13-7:27).  Salt was an essential constituent of Jewish meals and sacrificial offerings, and the parable means that Israel is essential to the world only so long as performs its proper duty.  The lamp parable suggests the conversion of those within Judaism, while Luke’s version suggests the conversion of the Gentiles.  This short complex of sayings from various contexts provides an introduction to the social duties of the new community.

                 There is clear evidence that Jesus disputed the oral tradition of the law, and uttered sayings that had the effect of undermining large sections of it.  So, it is natural that some should have accused him of destroying the law.  Matthew 5:17-20 appears to rebuke those who thought that Jesus’ chief intention was to relax the law; it uncompromisingly asserts the validity of the law.  One solution of this problem is to report the passage as a creation of the primitive Jewish Christian community.  Matthew was aware of the contradiction between sayings of Jesus that rigidly maintain and those that vigorously criticized the law.

                 Apart from verse 17, the passage is dominated by language describing the time before and after this age’s end and seems to reflect a debate about the law’s relation to the age to come.  The primary purpose of Jesus’ coming was to announce the nearness of God’s kingdom.  The new age’s inauguration would mean that the grand design to which the law prophetically pointed was brought to completion.  The Pharisees’ righteousness set before all an elaborate and extensive but finite obligation; the kingdom’s proclamation set before them an infinite obligation.  In the antitheses the teaching is given in a series of interpretations.  It is likely that an original nucleus contained simple antitheses to which illustrations and other relevant materials were later added.

                 The opening of the first antithesis expands murder to include anger.  When anger is classed murder not only the external act, but also the springs of emotion are subject to judgment.  The antithesis on adultery asserts that the marriage bond is injured even by thinking of unchastity, so that marriage is judged by its inner quality as much as by its legal form.  Only in Matthew’s version of the antithesis on divorce is there an exclusion for unchastity present.  Matthew’s version is either an attempt to avert a direct conflict between Jesus’ teaching and the law, or the first stage in transforming an absolute statement into a rule of limited obligation.

                 The antithesis on oaths begins with the legal principle that one who has taken an oath must not break his word.  Jesus’ ruling is that all equally involve God and his sovereignty; but his fundamental judgment is against taking oaths at all, and being totally committed by a simple “yes” or “no.”  The antithesis on retaliation deals in fact with the law of compensation for injury.  Every injury or demand has its legal remedy or limitation.  Jesus instructs all not to insist on their rights but to give more than is demanded of them.  The antithesis on love of neighbor provides the climax and is elaborated, as the last member of a series, with a clause of purpose—namely sharing God’s nature in sonship.  The final and summarizing sentence means that men are to be all-inclusive in their love as God is.

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                 This section of the sermon has a number of absolute demands together with immediately practical applications.  The author portrays Jesus as pressing behind the legal ruling to fundamental questions of personal relations; it is the spirit of rabbinic teaching at its best.  Jesus does not here contradict the law; nor does he make it more profound or more difficult.  He is concerned with God’s sovereign will.  The fundamental challenge is sharing the nature of God.    

                  The self-contained section 6:1-18 gives three examples of the general instruction that religious duties are to be performed, not to impress people, but to please God.  Jesus’ concern is the corruption of motives.  Religious duties, sincerely undertaken, can conceal an unacknowledged desire for human approval.  God will reward all at the judgment though God’s intention is far removed from an arbitrary future reward for piety.  The reward promised by Jesus is the restoration of personal encounter with the Father.

                  The original simple scheme has been augmented by additional sayings on prayer.  Matthew 6:7-8 warns against the Gentile custom addressing many gods and using magical and meaningless formulas.  In the Lord’s Prayer, every phrase represents a theme of discourse.  The sayings of 6:19-24 are loosely held together by the thought of possessions.  The choice between God and Mammon is followed by a section on anxiety and trust.  It mixes earthy common sense with an insistence on God’s providential care for fragile flowers. 

                  The section 7:1-12 is an assorted group of sayings of which verse 6 is peculiar to Matthew.  The meaning of verses 7-11 must be determined by the Golden Rule in verse 12, which reads like a commentary on them.  In Luke they illustrate the theme of fervent petition; but it is possible that they were originally directed against critics of Jesus.  Matthew uses this teaching about God to describe a right attitude towards one’s neighbor.

                  The conclusion seems to have been carefully deliberately arranged to present a repeated call to decision.  Matthew’s style may be understood as an invitation to “choose life,” rather than an indication that a few have life chosen for them.  Only a resolute determination to do the Father’s will made known in the words of Jesus is proof of genuine discipleship.  The conclusion of the sermon is in accord with the adaptation of sayings to the needs of the early Christian communities.  It is not just the announcement of the new law; the teaching of Jesus confronted all prophetically with the sovereignty of God.  It brings all in decision before God and their neighbor, so begins the process of setting them to share God’s sovereignty and do his will.

SERPENT (נחש (na khash); זחל (tsoo khal); אפעה (‘eh feh ‘eh), viper; ofiV (of fees); erpeton (er peh ton), creeping animal, reptile)  A scaly, limbless, long, and narrow reptile. 

      36 snake species are known in Palestine today; very few of them could have been known to the ancient Hebrews; the common name nakhash was probably applied to all snakes. There is no definite way to identify the poisonous species.  Yet it is by no means sure that present use is identical with biblical usage.  Serpents must have been feared and hated then; probably all serpents were thought to be poisonous.  The expectation that the serpent will have become innocuous and no longer a danger to humans is found in Gen. 3 and Is. 65.

      Although 13 of the 18 species of Palestinian snakes which Tristam mentions in the 1800s are in fact harmless, biblical writers usually treat the snake as dangerous and wicked.  Thus the serpent is used to represent evil people, the Babylonians, the effects of wine, and the scribes and Pharisees.  A more favorable side of the serpent is its reputed shrewdness.    

      The turning of a staff temporarily into a serpent occurs only in connection with Israel’s departure from Egypt.  The ancient Near East’s mythology has numerous echoes in the Old Testament.  One of the terms for Yahweh’s antagonist is the “fleeing serpent.”  While the Eden narrative reflects Israel’s basic theism, some of its details and undertones suggest connection with Sumerian mythology and the Gilgamesh Epic.  In Genesis 3 the serpent is not only the Lord God’s creature, but it is also one of the craftiest and best informed.  For some reason, the serpent opposes the creator’s purposes and the results are disastrous for all concerned.

      It is abundantly clear from a wide range of evidence that the snake was a symbol of deity and of fertility powers in the ancient Near East.  In Egypt, the beneficent serpent-goddess was Buto or Wazit.  On the other hand, the most important of all Egyptian demons (or evil gods) was Aphophis, the supreme opponent of Re, and he also was represented by a serpent.

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     In Mesopotamia too, the snake served as a religious symbol.  In the account of Hezekiah’s reforms, we are told that “he broke in pieces the bronze serpent that Moses had made.”  It is more probable that this serpent was of Canaanite origin, representing a fertility deity recognized in Jerusalem long before David’s time. 

     In describing the end of this age, Isaiah 27 uses “Leviathan the fleeing serpent” for the Lord’s enemies.  The Christian author of Revelation identifies “that ancient serpent” with the Devil.  Thus the serpents of the primeval cosmic struggle, of the Garden of Eden, and of the ancient fertility cult are united with all that the Jewish Satan had come to stand for.

SERPENT, BRONZE  (נחש נחשﬨ (na khash  neh khah shet))  The bronze figure of a snake made by Moses and erected by him in the wilderness (Numbers 21).  The ones who had been bitten were urged to look to the bronze serpent that their wounds might be healed.  The King James Version regularly speaks of brass, which is a carefully compounded alloy of copper and zinc not known to the ancients.  Bronze is a common mixture of copper and tin, which are frequently found in proximity to each other.

                 The story probably comes from the Elohwist writer, in which the use of magic and magical cures are prominent.  The snake was a well-known reptile of the wilderness, and was, in fact worshiped as representing evil and destruction, healing and creativity.  The fact that the Hebrew continued to worship or venerate the symbol indicates that the image had more than temporary healing properties.

SERPENT’S STONE  (ﬨאבן הזחל (‘eb en  ha tso kheh leth), stone of the creeping one)  A rock or stone near En-rogel, by which Adonijah sacrifices victims in view of his clandestine coronation.  The name may suggest that the ground where the stone stood was consecrated to a divinity having the serpent as emblem.      

SERUG  (שﬧוג, branch)  Reu’s son, of Shem’s line.  Serug became Nahor’s father at 30 and then lived 200 years more (Genesis 11).  The name is identified with the Akkadian city and district Sarugi, situated west of Haran.

SERVANT (עבﬢ (‘eh bed), slave; משﬧﬨ  (meh shaw ret), attendant; שﬤיﬧ (saw keer), hired laborer; douloV (doe oo los), slave; paiV (pah ees); diakonoV (die ak oh nos); qerapwn (theh ra pone), last three mean attendant)

                 A person of either sex who is in the service of a master.  He is under obligation to obey, to work for the benefit of his master.  He usually receives some protection in return.  There are voluntary and involuntary servants.  The terminology of the Bible does not consistently distinguish “servant” from “slave.”  In the Old Testament covenant servants are to be protected.  The law tried to discourage voluntary servitude on the part of Hebrews.  A servant could be trusted to seek out a wife for one’s son.  Female servants or maids could become concubines and bear children for the master.  The image of the servant of God as a worshiper is best understood in relation to the “slave” of God.                                     

SERVANT OF THE LORD (יהוה ﬢעב (‘eh bed  yah weh), slave of Yahweh)  A title given to the figure whose call and mission, sufferings, death, and exaltation are depicted in Isaiah 53.  Yahweh calls him “my servant.” 

                 Any servant of Yahweh was a privileged person.  In general the word ebed expressed the relationship of the weaker to the stronger party in a covenant; the servant was entitled to look to the lord for protection and hesed (steadfast love or the King James Version’s loving-kindness).  The worshipers or devotees of any god were “servants.”  In any case, individual Israelites were the “servants” and all of Israel Yahweh’s “servant.”                        
               Various classes of people are called “servant(s) of Yahweh”:  prophets (17 times); patriarchs (36 times); and kings (30 times).  Even Nebuchadrezzar, king of Babylon, is called “my servant.”  It is usual to denote certain passages in the writer of the second part of Isaiah as the “Servant Songs.”  The Songs (See below) were composed by this writer, although they may be later than the rest of his work.

     Isaiah 42:1-4—Yahweh introduces his Servant as his chosen one, endowed       with his spirit to bring forth “justice.” 

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     Isaiah 49:1-6—The Servant announces himself to the distant peoples as              called by Yahweh from birth and kept in readiness for his mission.  It is          not enough that he should be his servant to restore Israel; he is to be a            light to the nations.

     Isaiah 50:4-9—The speaker is the Servant.  He describes how Yahweh               wakens him morning by morning to hear as disciples hear. 

     Isaiah 52:13-53:12—In this passage the “we” (Israelites or Gentiles) exclaim       that the unbelievable has come to pass.  The servant had been                      disfigured and despised, and they supposed him stricken by God. They          see now that it was for their sins, not his own, that the Servant died.              Here the resurrection of the Servant is more hinted at than described.

               Many answers to the question, “Who was the Servant?” have been proposed.  Is the servant all of Israel; individual; king; or prophet?  Israel is called “my servant.”  But since the Servant has a mission to Israel, he may be an individual in whom Israel is incorporated.

               The servant passages were understood by New Testament writers as prophesying Christ.  While Jesus does not quote directly from the Servant Songs, it is clear that Jesus thought of his sufferings as having been “written of him.”  At the beginning of the Christian era there were also Jews who thought the Servant was the messiah, but they found it difficult to conceive of a suffering messiah. 

                 Few Christians dissented from the messianic interpretation until the end of the 1700s, when the Jewish view began to gain increasing currency.  Numerous theories identifying the “Servant of the Lord” as: kings (Hezekiah, Uzziah, Jehoiachin, and Zerubbabel); or prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, and even the writer of the verses).  Others have seen in the Servant an unknown contemporary of the writer of the second part of Isaiah.

                 None of the historical individual theories has wide following today.  The most attractive form of the collective theory is “corporate personality.”  Israelite thought could pass easily from nation to individual and vice versa.  “Israel” could have a mission, and could even be concentrated in a single person.  One form of the messianic interpretation would see the Servant as the future messiah, who annually “suffered” certain penalties as the representative of the people.  The Servant is too complex a figure to fit into any single category.

                 Assuming that the Songs are from the author of the second part of Isaiah, we start from the equation Servant=Israel.  But since the Servant of the songs is anonymous, and since the anonymity of the Servant is accompanied by a gradually increasing sense that an individual is being described, it is probable that the prophet looked for the coming of one who would more perfectly embody the ideal of what Yahweh’s servant should be.  The Servant bears more the features of a prophet than those of a king, but much in the portrait could apply to both prophet and king, and he manifests Jesus’ idea of messiahship.  However we should not attempt to apply every detail in the description of him.

                 What was the Servant to do?  Suffering as Hosea and Jeremiah did in the course of their work, without bitterness is part of it.  The uniqueness of the Servant lies in this:  he not only encountered and accepted suffering like these prophets; in the final phase suffering became the means whereby he accomplished his work.  “Upon him was the chastisement that made us whole.”  It is agreed that whoever was the original of the Servant, none except Christ was its fulfillment.    

SETH  (ﬨש, compensation, foundation)  In the Yahwistic (J) genealogy, the third son of Adam and Eve.  The Priestly(P) genealogy, by not mentioning Cain or Abel, infers that Seth was Adam’s first son and furnishes the few statistics of Seth’s life.  Both J and P have Seth, Enosh, and Noah in common and may represent two versions of an earlier traditional list.  Eve named “Seth” because, “God has appointed for me another child instead of Abel.”  The correct etymology is uncertain.

SETHUR  (סﬨוﬧ, hidden, protected)  Son of Michael of the tribe of Asher, sent to spy out the land of Canaan.

SEVEN, SEVENTH, SEVENTY  (שבעה (shih baw); שביעי (sheh bee ‘ee); שבעים (shih beh yeem))  The number seven was sacred among the various Semitic peoples as well as among many other peoples.  Among the Egyptians, seven gradually succeeded four as the favorite holy number.  In life, death, magic, and medicine seven was a potent number.  Seven gods are invoked in incantation.  Multiples of seven were also important. 

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                 In Mesopotamia seven was holy from earliest times, but the origin of its sacred character is unknown.  The lunar month, however, never has a whole number of days.  The oldest reference to seven-day periods dates from the 2200s B.C. and has reference to seven-day religious festivals and observances, not to the division of the month.  The Mesopotamian seven-day week had its origin in the cult.  It has also been suggested that the seven-day week had its beginning in the Sumero-Akkadian theology and cosmology.

                 Seven plays an important role in the Old Testament; its symbolic use is extensive.  Seven was the period for certain important festivals.  The New Year, the Day of Atonement, and Tabernacles all occur in the seventh month.  The Feast of Weeks and the Jubilee were based on the square of seven.  The victims for sacrifice are often.  The sacrificial blood is sprinkled seven times.

                 The furnishings and decorations of the temple were in sevens, such as the seven-branched candlestick. The oath is connected with seven.  Seven was a factor in vengeance and punishment.  Evil spirits and infirmities also came in sevens.  The ideal number of sons was apparently seven.  Wedding festivals were celebrated for seven days.  Serious ritual defilement lasted seven days.

                 Seven-year periods of tribulation are interrupted in the middle by divine intervention.  The neat division of time between Abraham and Christ into three periods of 14 generations is clearly artificial.  70 is often an approximate figure.  The 77-fold vengeance of Lamech and the forgiveness 70 times 7 which Jesus enjoined are intended figuratively for a practically unlimited number.  7,000 never bowed knee to Baal and was the number of Israelites in Nebo who were sacrificed to Mesha’s god.

                 Besides the explicit sevens, there also many case where one may count seven items in a list (e.g. seven petitions of Solomon’s prayer and of the Lord’s Prayer; the seven last words of Christ.  The book of Revelation is especially rich both in explicit 7s and in latent ones.  The simplest and most comprehensive generalization is that seven denotes completeness, perfection, and consummation.

SEVEN, THE.  A name given in Acts 21 to the group ordained by the 12.  The Seven all bore Greek names, and one of them was a proselyte from heathenism.  They were Jews who tended to adapt themselves to Greek habits and ways of life.  Their special appointment came about as a result of the difficulty orthodox Jews had in sharing a common table with those having lax standards regarding the Jewish law.  Acts tells us only about activities of Stephen and Philip, whom it represents as preachers and evangelists.  The number 7 was probably symbolic, like the number 12, and may have been associated in the mind of Luke with his peculiar account of the sending forth of the Seventy, which may represent the Hebrew numbering of the nations of the earth.

SEVEN [LAST WORDS] WORDS FROM THE CROSS.  The sayings attributed to Jesus, by the four Gospels in the New Testament, during the hour of his Crucifixion: 

                  “Father, forgive them; for they know not what they do” (Luke 23:34).

                  “Truly, I say to you, today you will be with me in Paradise” (23:43).

                  “Woman, behold your son! . . . Behold your mother” (John 19:26-27).

                  “My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?” (Matthew 27:46; Mark 15:34; from Psalm 22:1).

                  “I thirst” (John 19:28).  In response to this a sponge full of vinegar was held to Jesus’ mouth.

                  “It is finished” (John 19:30).

“Father, into thy hands I commit my spirit” (Luke 23:46; based on Psalm 31:5, which had long been used by Jews at evening.

SEWING  (טפל (taw pal), devise, forge; ﬨפﬧ (taw par), join together; epirraptw (eh peer rap toe))  Sewing garments must have been practiced from the Middle Bronze Age (2100 B.C.) onward, to judge from the needles and awls found in Palestinian sites.

SEX, SEXUAL BEHAVIOR  (See Glossary below.)  Although there many manifestations of sex in the Bible there is no single word for it.  Its importance is indicated by the role it plays in the life of biblical people.  The prominence of sexuality in the pagan cults made inevitable the effort to work out a theology of sex.  The literature of the Bible records a strange combination of frankness and reticence in its discussion of sex.  

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      Glossary

            Hebrew

אהב             (‘aw hab), love—The love of a man for a woman based on sexual attraction is often indicated by this root.  The longing of a woman for a man is determined by God.            

             איש ('eshe), male—An ancient poetic oracle records the belief, which may have been widely held, that the words for “man” and “woman” in the Hebrew language are closely related.  Actually the words do not derive from the same root.  There are several theories as to the origin of ‘ish.  It sometimes refers to the male of animals; its primary meaning is an emphasis on the distinction between man and woman. 
       אשה ('ee shaw), female—Isha perhaps derives from the root meaning of “soft, delicate,” and refers to woman in her sexual function of reproduction.       

               בטן (beh ten), womb 
         ﬧבש (baw sawr), all flesh, secret parts—Literally it means flesh, and may be used of the bodies of both animals and humans.  It specifically refers to the penis and testicles in a number of instances.  It is part of the well-known euphemism “You shall circumcise the flesh of your foreskins.”     

                 היניק (hay neek), give suck                   
         זﬤﬧ (tsaw kawr), male—Used together with nekabah to distinguish the two sexes.  See also נקבה (nekabah).  The two words are used in God’s creation of humankind in God’s image in Genesis 1:27. 

                 זﬧע (zeh rah), seed, sperm

                 יםחלץ (khah law tsah eem), loins—Used to indicate the seat of virility.        
          יﬢע (yaw daw), to know sexually—The meaning “to know” in a sexual and personal sense is emphasized in the account of the tree in the midst of the garden (Genesis 2:17). י

           יﬧך (yaw ray kah), thigh—Denotes the seat of procreative power as being the thigh or loins of the male.  It may in some instances indicate the penis and testicles.  The male sex organs were used by Abraham and Jacob in the exacting of a promise, and the making of an oath.

                   הנקב (neh kay bah), female—It is probably related to the root meaning “to pierce.” 
                  See also ﬤﬧז (zakar). 

                   עﬧוה (‘eh reh vah), nakedness, nudity—This is used in the context of shameful exposure of the female sex organs.  In feminine construct form עﬧוﬨ (‘erevath) it describes the nakedness of Noah in Genesis 9:22.

                   ﬧגל (reh gel), feet—While translated as “feet” in Ruth 3:7 and Exodus 4:25, the root is used as an adverb describing action toward what many scholars believe is the penis and testicles of Boaz and Moses.  

                   ﬧחם (reh khem), womb—Possibly from Assyrian or Arabic roots meaning “be wide” and “be soft,” respectively.  It is used in connection with the womb at the time of birth.  By far the most common term in biblical usage, which is drawn from rekhem, is חמיםﬧ (rakhamim), meaning “pity, mercy, and compassion.”

                   שﬢ (shode), breast, teat—Used most often in Song of Songs [Solomon].                     See also היניק (hayniq).

                   שפﬤה (shof kah), penis—The word comes from the root meaning “pour out.”

           

                 Glossary Notes: Hebrew—The word “sex” refers primarily to the physical differences between male and female.  The Bible contains terms which clearly distinguish the sexes from each other, on the human and animal levels.  They stress both the differentiation and the relation between the sexes which lie at the root of biblical society.  Drawn from the experience of sex and of sex differences, generally descriptive terms have entered the biblical vocabulary.  Precise words for physical organs may be identified, but they carry a broader connotation than may be found in modern usage.  Euphemisms are used to conceal the male and female organs of sexual intercourse and reproduction, exposure of which was held to be shameful.  Many words serving to characterize the apostate people addressed by the prophets in particular are taken from the sex vocabulary of the Bible.

                 Greek

                 anhr (ah ner), adult male, human being—Identifies the need of the male in causing pregnancy.

                 arsen (ar sen), male sex—Used together with thelus to distinguish the two sexes (e.g. Rom. 1:26-27).

                 aschmosunh (as kay moe suh nay), nakedness—Paul uses this word to mean “unpresentable parts.”

                 epiqumia (eh pee thoo meeah), lust, desire—Sexual love in the New Testament is defined largely in the category of lust.  Paul declares that the desires of the flesh must not be gratified.  A man should not touch a woman, but if he must, he should take a wife.  Husbands are to love their wives as they love their own bodies.

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                 gunh (goo nay), wife, woman—Most often it is translated “wife.”

                 qhluV (theh loos), female, woman

                 mazoV;  mastoV (mah zos; mas tos), breast—Luke uses this word in relation to the breasts that give suck.

                 osfuV (os foos), loins—Writer of the Letter to the Hebrews uses this word for the “loins of Abraham.”

                 sarx (sarks), body, flesh, human nature—In Matthew 19, Mark 10, I Corinthians 6, and Ephesians 5, it refers to the union of a man and a woman, by which they become “one flesh.” The word carries the connotation of sinful feelings and desires and the means of sensual enjoyment.

                 sperma (sper ma), semen, seed

                 swma (sow ma), sexual body, person

                 While the Bible is not concerned with sex as such, allusions to it may be found on many pages.  These allusions are expressed with considerable candor and freedom.  At other times long phrases are used as euphemisms to avoid direct reference to a sexual act or organ.  Sons are needed, thus sex relations are important to the entire family or clan group.  One finds no condemnation of sex in the sources, for it is viewed as fundamentally good in serving an essential social purpose.  The function of sex in the family motivates a vigorous biblical rejection of its abuse and perversions.

                 Sex on the animal level was recognized as the means of providing increase in the flocks.  A third reason for the prominence of sex in the Bible is to be found in the threat to the integrity of Israel’s life which the ancient Near Eastern cult of sex continuously posed.  Some biblical writers attacked the widespread sexuality which was popularly viewed as divine and as the source of human salvation.

                 Deeply entrenched attitudes toward forms of sexual behavior may take the form of taboos, whether crystallized into law or not.  A son of Noah beheld the nakedness of his drunken father, and was cursed.  Nakedness was therefore a sign of humiliation and degradation.  Taboos against incestuous relation with women are formulated in law in the Old Testament.  A woman must not wear male garments, nor should a man wear female garments.  The laws pertaining to sex are usually not concentrated in portions of a biblical book.  Adulterous interest in another man’s wife is prohibited.  Also included are laws against homosexuality, and prohibition against the use of earnings from homosexual practices in the temple.

                 There is little direct evidence of the segregation of women in the biblical community.  Women seem to have had their own living quarters.  Noteworthy also is the clear indication in the book of Esther of the segregation of the palace women.  There is definite evidence to indicate sex discrimination.  Because of her sexual function, a woman’s violation of law and custom received harsher treatment than that of the male.  Sexual infidelity was punished. 

                 Sexual intercourse took place principally for the procreation of children, but also for monetary gain.  Sexual irregularities of the male were not condemned in themselves.  The period of uncleanness after childbirth was longer for a female child than it was for a male one.  The force of a vow made by a woman depended upon the approval of her father or husband. 

                 The biblical interpretation of sex took the form of a reaction to its glorification in the culture that surrounded it.  The principle of sex was embodied in the various fertility cults which confronted the people of the Bible. Sexual intercourse at the shrine was a part of the ritual.  This was sternly condemned because of its threat to the ethical demands of Israel’s faith.  The God of Israel, not the gods and goddesses of the cult, is the source of fertility.  God is the source of sexuality and demands its use for the perpetuation of God’s people and the glory of God’s name.  When they use their sexuality apart from his relation to it, a curse falls upon them and upon their children.  Humans must turn to God with the personal, spiritual knowledge expressed in Hebrew by the word “to know,” which is also used for sexual intercourse. 

                 The developing biblical rejection of nature religions as their threat to biblical faith became clear, involved also a development of sexual prohibitions.  The powerful prophetic attack upon the abuse of sex has been noted.  Only the life hidden in Christ can fulfill the demand for self-control.  The consummation of the meaning of sex in marriage provides an opportunity for Jesus to manifest his glory by his presence at a wedding feast.

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SHAALBIM  (שעלבים, foxes)  An Amorite city which was assigned to Dan but which the Danites were unable to occupy.  The city was finally occupied by Israelites and became a part of Solomon’s second administrative district.  For the present, most scholars identify Shaalbim with modern-day Selbit, about 5 km northwest of Aijalon and 13 km north of Beth-shemesh.

SHAALBON (שעלבני (sha ‘al beh nie), of foxes)  The home of Eliahba, one of David’s Mighty Men. Possibly it is to be identified with Shaalbim.

SHAALIM (שעלים, foxes)  A region traversed by Saul in his search for the lost asses.  It has been conjectured that it may be an error of Shaalbim or for Shual #2.

SHAAPH (שעף) 1.  The last-born son of Jahdai; a descendant of Caleb (I Chronicles 2).
        2.      A son of Caleb and his concubine Maacah; the father of Madmannah (I Chronicles 2)

SHAARAIM  (יםﬧשע, two gates)  A city of Judah in the Shephelah district of Azekah. The pursuit of the Philistines after David’s slaying of Goliath, reached from Shaaraim to Gath and Ekron

SHAASHGAZ  (שעשגז)  The eunuch in charge of King Ahasuerus’ concubines (Esther 2).

SHABBETHAI  (ﬨישב, sabbath-born)  A Levite who assisted Ezra in the execution of the edict against having foreign wives (Ezra 10).

SHADE.  See Shadow.

SHADES  (פאיםﬧ (reh faw eem), community of the dead or departed)  The belief that the shades of the dead were endowed with some vitality and that they possessed the power to inflict harm was widely held in the ancient Near East.  Particularly feared were those who had been neglected by their kin.  ‘Ub is usually translated “medium,” or “spirit of divination.”  The aspect of fear of the “evil ghosts,” is not reported in the biblical literature.  The shades huddle together in She’ol and are called qahal repha’im, the community of the dead.

SHADOW  (צלל (tsay lel), shade; ﬨצלמו (tsah leh maw veth), deep, thick darkness; טלל (taw lel), find shade; skia (skee ah), shade)  The shade of foliage, clouds, or a rock is welcome protection against the Near Eastern sun at midday, whose intensity was thought to be the work of demonic powers or, metaphorically, the protective power afforded by a man, city, or kingdom.  In other passages the shadow signifies transience and vanity.

                 The canopy over Yahweh’s glory will shade from the deadly rays of the sun, and in Yahweh’s shadow the pious man is safe from mysterious as well as familiar, threats.  The shadow of Yahweh’s hands and wings are metaphors of Yahweh’s sovereign protection.  The familiar King James Version phrase “shadow of death” is based upon a popular belief as to the source of the word’s meaning (See beginning of article).  The New Testament usage reflects most Greek, rather than Hebrew, thought.

SHADRACH, MESHACH, ABED-NEGO  (שﬢﬧך ,מישך ,עבﬢ נגו; one explanation of the meaning is that it is a deliberate corruption of the name of Babylonian gods; doubts have been raised about this explanation.  Abed nego means “servant of Nego” (possibly the god Nabu))  The three companions of Daniel (chapter 3).  The names always occur together and in the same order.  The youths were assigned these Babylonian names by Nebuchadnezzar’s chief eunuch, their Hebrew names being Hananiah (Yahweh has been gracious), Mishael (who is like God), and Azariah (whom the Lord strengthens).

                 The story of Daniel’s companions was eminently suited for inclusion in a work written to undergird the faith of beleaguered Palestinian Jews of 165 B.C. under the Seleucid Greeks.  The youths, along with Daniel demonstrate in their persons the superiority of Jewish ways and convince their alien ruler of this.  They are of stalwart faith and piety, withstanding all pressures to worship the pagan image set up by Nebuchadnezzar.

                 The apocryphal Song of the Three Young Men represents the heroes as walking “in the midst of the flames, singing hymns to God and blessing the Lord” (e.g. “. . . our God whom we serve is able to deliver us

           . . . But if not . . . we will not serve your gods or worship the golden image which you have set up.”).  The three friends’ Hebrew names occur separately in the Old Testament elsewhere than in the passages cited above, but those persons cannot be identified with any of three heroes in Daniel.  The renaming of the men upon their entrance to a new position of status follows the example of Joseph in the court of the Pharaoh.  It is possible that the author explicitly identifies the one triad with the other in order to fuse two originally independent traditions, and this might be enough to account for the renaming of the young men.

SHAGEE (שגא, erring)  A Hararite, the father of Jonathan, one of the company of the Mighty Men of David known as the “Thirty.”

SHAHAR  (שחﬧ (shaw khar), dawn, morning) King James Version translation of this word.  Shahar is the Venus Star at dawn.  Shalem is the Venus Star after sunset, and Shahar’s twin in Canaanite myth.  References to “eyelids of Shahar” (Job 3) are probably not images of the dawn, but are connected to the Canaanite myth.

SHAHARAIM ( ﬧיםשח (shah khah rah yeem), two dawns)  A descendant of Benjamin.  He had three wives, but banished two of them.

SHAHAZUMAH  (שחצומה (shah khah tsoo mah), heights)  A border town in Issachar.  No positive identification of this town’s site has been made.  A mound situated on the promontory formed by the confluence of two wadies, approximately 8 km east-southeast of Mount Tabor, has been suggested.

SHALEM  (שלם, safely, at peace) Commentators have explained its meaning in various ways, the best one being the Revised Standard Version, that it describes how Jacob reached Shechem, i.e. safely or in peace.

SHALEM  (שלם, he who bring to completion)  A deity now definitely known from the Ras Shamra texts, along with his twin Shahar,  who is the Venus Star at dawn; Shalem is the Venus Star after sunset.  It has been suggested that Shalem signifies “the peace” of the evening, but Shalem should be taken in its primary sense of “completion.”  In the Old Testament, though Shalem is not recognized as a god, his name is compounded in the place name Jerusalem.  It seems likely that Shalem was the local god of pre-Israelite Jerusalem.  Shalamanu is the name of Moabite king mentioned by Tiglath-pileser III.  This suggests that Shalem, the evening manifestation of the Venus Star, was identical with the Athar of Arabian mythology.

SHALISHAH  (שלשה, in a triangle)  A region through which Saul passed in his search for the lost asses.  Scholars have assumed Saul was traveling north from Gibeah through Ephraim, so that Shalishah was either in or directly north of the territory of Ephraim.

SHALLECHETH, GATE OF (שעﬧ שלﬤﬨ (shah ‘ar  shah leh keth), gate of a cut-down tree)  A gate in the western section of the temple enclosure in Jerusalem; a causeway led up to it from the city.

SHALLUM  (שלום, retribution)  1.  Jabesh’s son, from Ibleam in the Plain of Esdraelon.  He reigned as king over Israel (northern kingdom) for one month in 747 B.C.  (II Kings 15).  He assassinated Zechariah, but was then murdered by Menahem.  Several such murders led to the fall of Israel to the Assyrian conqueror Sargon II.  Both Amos and Hosea prophesied that the Judah’s sins in the southern kingdom would result in such a downfall.  2.  Tikvah’s son and Huldah’s (the prophetess) husband (II Kings 22; II Chron. 34).  3.  King Josiah of Judah’s 4^th son, and his successor in 608 B.C.  4.  As the prophet Jeremiah’s uncle, he gave Jeremiah the right to redeem a family field.  The prophet used the occasion to symbolize the future when property would be bought again in Judah (Jer. 32).  5.  Maaseiah’s father and one of the keepers of the temple’s threshold (Jer. 35).  6.  Sismai’s son; Jekamiah’s father and Jerahameel of Judah’s descendant (I Chronicles 2).

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     7.      Simeon’s descendant; Shauland’s (father of Mibsam) son (I Chronicles 4).  8.  A high priest, Zadok’s son, and Hilkiah’s father (I Chron. 6; Ezra 7).  9.  Naphtali’s 4^th son by Bilbah (I Chron. 7).  10.  A Levitic gatekeeper in the Levites’ camp; among the first to return to Judah from exile (I Chron. 9).  He is, perhaps, the same as Shallum the Korahite (I Chron. 9).  He was also someone who was forced to put away a foreign wife, according to Jerusalem’s post-exilic law (Ezra 10).  11.  Part of Ephraim’s tribe, and Jehizkiah’s father (I Chron. 28).  12.  An Israelite married to a foreign wife while in exile (Ezra 10).  13.  Hallohesh’s son; one of those helping to rebuild Jerusalem’s wall (Nehemiah 3).  He had charge of half of one of the five governmental districts into which Judah was divided.  14.  Colhozeh’s son (Neh. 3); he repaired the Fountain gate.

SHALMAI (שלמי, retribution of the Lord)  The ancestor and originator of the name of a family of Nethinim or temple servants, among the exiles returned from Babylon.

SHALMAN  (שלמן)  An unidentified foreign king in Hosea 10, possibly Shalmaneser.

SHALMANESER  (שלמנאסﬧ) Shalmaneser I #1.  (1274-1245 B.C.), son of Adad-nirari I.  The first Assyrian king to leave detailed accounts of his campaigns against the mountain people of Zagros, and against Shattuara of Hanigalbat and the Arameans along the Euphrates.

     2.      Shalmaneser II  (1031-1020 B.C.).  Nearly nothing is known of this king, who followed Tiglath-pileser I to the throne.

     3.      Shalmaneser III (858-824 B.C.), son of Ashur-nasirpal II.  He is one of those rulers who laid the foundation of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.  He also was the first Assyrian king to come in contact with the kings of Israel.  The three-front war which any Assyrian king of stature had to wage seems to have caused Shalmaneser III an immense amount of trouble; two of the three are mentioned here.  His northern campaigns, while offensive in manner, had a defensive goal.

            His stubborn push to the west took up most of his military effort.  For three years (858-856) Shalmaneser III struggled with the Aramean Ahuni to dislodge him from the left bank of the Euphrates.  The kings of the territories from Cilica to Ammon mustered an army of 63,000 men.  10,000 foot soldiers and 2,000 chariots were sent by King Ahab of Israel.  Shalmaneser won but still had to retreat in 853.  In 848 the Syrian allies were again able to stand their ground against Shalmaneser at Ashtamaku. 

     Shalmaneser seems to made extensive preparations up to 845 to assemble an immense army of 125,000.  Shalmaneser and his officers were able to take Carchemish, be active on the mountain front, and interfere in a fight for the Babylonian throne; in two small campaigns he defeated the pretender.  The western kings who had supported the alliance had died, and Hazael of Damascus had to face Shalmaneser, who was not able to conquer Damascus. Shalmaneser extended Assyrian domination deep into Cilicia and the regions to the north.

     4.  Shalmaneser IV (782-772 B.C.), son of Adad-nirari III. He had to fight a defensive war against the growing power of Urartu under its king Argistis I.

     5.  Shalmaneser V (727-722 B.C.), Son of Tiglath-pileser III.  He ruled in Babylon as “Ululai and laid siege to Samaria for possibly 3 years.  Shalmaneser apparently died or was murdered during the siege.

        

SHAMA  (שמע, hearing)  One of the two sons of Hotham the Aroerite who were included among the members of the Mighty Men of David known as the 30 ( I Chronicles 11).

SHAME (ﬨבש (bow sheth), confusion; חﬧפה (kheh reh paw), reproach, contempt; aiscunh (ahees koo neh), disgrace; kataiscunw (kah tahees koo no), dishonor, disgrace)  Painful consciousness of guilt, unworthiness, failure.  In the objective sense, shame is the disgrace which sinners bring upon themselves, or from natural calamities as barrenness or widowhood.  Otherwise it is the derision brought by one’s enemies.

                 Shame comes as a divine judgment upon sinners and particularly upon Israel’s foes.  The scribes have substituted the word “shame” (bosheth) for “Baal” in the names Ishbosheth and Mephibosheth.  A frequent Old Testament expression, adopted by New Testament usage, is “to be put to shame.”  Subjectively, shame is experienced as guilt for sin as a sense of defeat or failure as a violation of one’s honor.  The experience of shame may be very painful.  In the New Testament, the cross on which Christ died was the symbol of his bitter shame.  One may be ashamed of others, as some are of Christ, but true believers are not ashamed of him.  And, while shame may be painful, it nonetheless may lead to great good through repentance.

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SHAMGAR  (ﬧשמג; in Hurrian it means [the god] Shimike gave)  The “son of Anath,” in whose days travel almost ceased in Israel because of the danger of marauding bands.  Shamgar delivered Israel by killing 600 Philistines with an oxgoad.  The “Ben-Anath” mentioned by pharaoh Ramses II was a least a century too early to be Shamgar, who was actually “of Ben-anath,” a Canaanite town in the Galilee area. 

                 The reference to Shamgar in the Song of Deborah should be of unique value because it is probably almost contemporary with the hero himself.  One view is that Shamgar’s anti-Philistine exploit was a campaign to clear the roads for resumption of travel.  This interpretation is doubtful, because the clear inference from the Song is that the time was one of continuous danger which was cleared up only by Deborah’s action.  The other view is that Shamgar was therefore the cause of the serious travel condition.  This too is unlikely.

                 The instrument used by Shamgar was perhaps an 8-foot metal-tipped pole.  His adventure is strikingly similar to the story of Samson, and his name is similar to one of David’s heroes, Shammah, who also slaughtered Philistines.  On account of similarities and uncertainties concerning Shamgar, some scholars regard him as the invention of a later editor.  Yet it is not unlikely that Shamgar was a local Galilean person of the mid-1100s B.C. who was victorious over some unknown foe.  He may have been a tyrant plundering the caravans of prosperous foreign merchants and so regarded as a hero by the Israelites.

SHAMHUTH  (ﬨשמהו, desolation, astonishment)  An Izrahite or, preferably, a Zerahite, who was the commander of a division of the Davidic militia for the fifth month (I Chronicles 27).  See also Shammah 4.

SHAMIR (שמיﬧ, thorn) 1. A Levite, son of Micah (I Chronicles 24). 2. A village of Judah in the         hill-country district of Debir, about 22 km west of Hebron, in what is  now el-Bireh. 3. A         village in the hill country of Ephraim which became the home of the judge Tola, at or         near the later site of Samaria (Judges 10).

SHAMMAI (שמי, desolated) 1. A descendant of Jerahmeel of Judah; son of Onam; father of Nadab and Abishur; brother of Jada (I Chronicles 2). 2. A descendant of Caleb of Judah; son of Rekem and father of Maon (I Chronicles 2). 3. A descendant of Judah, and son of Jered by his Egyptian wife Bithiah (I Chronicles 4). 

SHAMMA (שמא, desert) A member of the tribe of Asher, and the 8th son of Zophah (I Chronicles 7). 

SHAMMAH (שמה, desolation, astonishment; See also Shimea) 1. An Edomite chief whose father, Teuel, was Esau’s and Base-math’s son (Gen. 36; I Chron. 1). 2. A Hararite, Agee’s son, who achieved the distinction of being the third in David’s high command, known as “Three.” He defended single-handedly a field of lentils from a Philistine foraging raid. His son Jonathan appears among the company of Davidic heroes known as the “30” (II Sam. 23). 3. A Harodite who was a member of David’s Mighty Men, known as the “30” (II Sam. 23). His name is variously given as Shammoth of Harod and Shammuth (II Sam.11; 27, respectively). 

SHAMMOTH (ﬨשמו, desolation)  A Harodite who was among the Mighty Men of David known as the “Thirty.”  In II Samuel 23, his name appears as Shammah the Harodite (see Shammah 3).  

SHAMMUA  (שמוע, news, tidings)  1.  One of the sons of David who was born to him in Jerusalem by a concubine or wife.  Shammua here is identical with the Shimea mentioned in I Chronicles 3.  2.  A Reubenite, son of Zaccur.  He was one of the 12 men sent out by Moses from the wilderness of Paran to spy out the land of Canaan (Numbers 13).  3.  A Levite, the father of Abda, and son of Galal (Nehemiah 11).  He is called Shemaiah in I Chronicles 9.  4.  A priest, son of Bilgah, and the head of a priestly house (Nehemiah 12).

SHAMSHERAI  (ﬧישמש)  A Benjaminite, the first-born son of Jeroham (I Chronicles 8)

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SHAPHAM (שפם, eminent, excellent)   A Gadite dwelling in Bashan.  He was second in authority in his tribe.

SHAPAN  (שפן, cony, rabbit)  1.  The head of a family that figured prominently in the events of Josiah’s reign, the last days of the Judean monarchy, and the life of Jeremiah.  He was secretary-financial officer to Josiah and was the bearer of the new-found “book of the law” from Hilkiah the priest to Josiah (II Kings 22: 3-13; II Chronicles 34).  He was sent by the king to consult Huldah the prophetess concerning the new book.  Shaphan seems to have been friends of the Josianic reform.  Ahikam, one of his sons, was also a court official and saved Jeremiah from death at the hands of the mob.

                 The family’s sympathy with the prophet was further evidenced by the fact that Jeremiah was put under guardianship of Shaphan’s grandson, Gedaliah, who was appointed governor of Judah.  Some scholars question the identification of all these men as sons of the same Shaphan, but their common prominence in the life of the nation strongly imply that they belong to the same family.

     2.   Jaazaniah’s father, whom one of Ezekiel’s visions shows inciting the people to idolatry (Ezekiel 8).

SHAPAT  (שפט, judge)  1.  A Simeonite; son of Hori.  He was one of the 12 men sent out from the wilderness of Paran by Moses to spy out Canaan (Number 13)  2.  The father of the prophet Elisha, from Abelmeholah, a town probably located on the eastern border of the territory of Manasseh, near the Jordan River (I Kings 19; II Kings 3, 6).  3.  The last-born of the six sons of Shemaiah, and the grandson of Zerubbabel; a descendant of the royal line of David  (I Chronicles 3).  4.  A Gadite chief who dwelt in the land of Bashan (I Chronicles  5).  5.  Son of Adlai.  He was in charge of King David’s herds in the valleys (I Chronicles 27).

SHAPHIR  (ﬧשפי, fair)  A place mentioned in the wordplay section of Micah’s prophecy in alliteration with shofar, “trumpet.”  Eusecius mentions a Shafir between Eleutheropolis and Ashkelon.  A more likely identification is a place west of Hebron, Khirbet el-Kom.

SHARAI  (יﬧש, beginning)  One of the returned exiles, contemporaries of Ezra, who had married foreign wives.

SHARAR (ﬧﬧש, firm) Ahiam’s father; his son was one of David’s Mighty Men known as the “30” (II Sam. 23).

SHAREZER  (ﬧאצﬧש)   i 1.  A god mentioned beside Regem-melech (Zechariah 7).  2.  A son of Sennacherib who, with Adrammelech murdered his father in the “temple of Nisroch.”

SHARON (ﬧוןש, plain, level)  The maritime plain extending approximately from Joppa north to Mount Carmel.

                 It is about 80 km long and from 11 to 14 km wide. It was a well-watered region.  Five streams cross it; three of them flow all year long.  The central part of the plain is a characterized by an east-west outcropping of Mousterian Red Sand, which forces the stream to flow north and south of it. 

                 The extensive sand dunes in the plain are part of the Pleistocene hills which extend in places to the shore of the Mediterranean.  There were some small settlements in Sharon.  The only other notable one was north of Joppa at Tell Qasile, founded around 1200 B.C.; the area was better known for its marshes and forests than for its cities.  The annual rainfall sometimes resulted in flooding.  I Chronicles 5 mentions Sharon (sharon?) in a context with Bashan and Gilead, east of the Jordan.  I Chronicles use the same word elsewhere to designate “maritime plain,” and is probably using it the same way in Chapter 5.

                 Thutmose III’s armies probably skirted the plain to the east in order to avoid the difficult terrain near the shore.  There is no reference to Sharon until the time of David, when it came under his influence.  The “Rose of Sharon,” mentioned in the Song of Songs [Solomon] is actually a crocus which grows in the area; the woman is referring to herself figuratively.  Other figurative uses are in Isaiah, chapters 33, 35, and 65.

SHARONITE  (וניﬧש (shar oh nie))  A term used for Shitrai, the person in charge of David’s herds in the Plain of Sharon (I Chronicles 27).

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SHARUHEN  שﬧוהן, pleasant lodging)  City of Simeon located in Judah’s southwestern part.  In other lists the name is “Shilim” (Josh. 15) and “Sharraim” (I Chron. 4).  Sharuhen (S’rahuna) is mentioned in Egyptian records as a Hyksos town.  This town was besieged for 3 years by Pharaoh Ahmose I before falling in 1570 B.C.  In 1480, fighting broke out between revolters and those loyal to Pharaoh; the loyalists won.  One of the most popular locations is Tell esh-Sheri’ah, about 27 km southeast of Gaza.  Tell el-Far’ah, 29 km south of Gaza has evidence of Hyksos occupation.  Israel’s government, changed “Tell el-Far’ah” to Tell Sharuhen.

SHASHAI  (ששי, white marble)  One of the returned exiles, contemporaries of Ezra, who married foreign wives.

SHASHAK (ששק, eagerness)  A son of Elpaal of Benjamin, and father of 11 sons (I Chronicles 8).

SHAUL (שאול, asked for, lent)  1.  The 6^th king in Edom “before any king reigned over the Israelites.”  Identification of his territory is uncertain.  Either Rehoboth “on the Euphrates” or “by the river” can be read.  The Palestinian Rehoboth, about 12 km southwest of Beer-sheba may be indicated.  2.  An Israelite; son of Simeon and a Canaanite woman.

SHAVEH, VALLEY OF (עמק שוה (‘eh mak  shah veh), valley of the [by] the level place)  The valley in which Abraham, victorious over Chedorlaomer and his confederates, was met by the king of Sodom and by Melchizedek, king of Salem.  The Valley of Shaveh can be regarded as synonymous with the Kidron.

SHAVEH-KIRIATHAIM (קﬧיﬨים  שוה , plain of cities)  The location in Transjordan where Chedorlaomer subdued the Emim. There was a city named Kiriathaim with a modern city, but no remains have been found there from earlier than the first century B.C. 

SHAVING  (גלח (gaw leek))  The custom of shaving the face and head was less common among the Hebrews than among the Egyptian and Romans.  As a sign of mourning, Job shaved his head.  Levites were instructed to “go with a razor over all their body.”  A person detected with leprosy of the head was instructed to shave, but avoiding the infected place.  Women taken captive in war were required to shave their heads, to make them less attractive.  The prophets saw the shaven head as a symbol of impending doom.    

SHAVSHA  (שושא)  A high official who discharged the Scribe’s office in David’s royal court.  Textual evidence is strongest for assuming that Shavsha or Shisha is the original.  The name may be of Babylonian origin.

SHEAL  (שאל, petition)  One of the returned exiles, contemporaries of Ezra, who had married foreign wives.

SHEALTIEL  (ﬨיאלשאל, I have asked of God)  A son of King Jeconiah, the father of Zerubbabel the governor in postexilic Judah in Ezra 3 and Nehemiah 12.  In I Chronicles 3 he appears as Zerubbabel’s uncle.

SHEARIAH  (היﬧשע, whom the Lord values)  One of the six sons of Azel of Benjamin  (I Chronicles 8; 9).

SHEAR-JASHUB  (ישוב ﬧשא, a remnant shall return [either from exile, or to God] )  The symbolic name of the first-born of Isaiah.  It will be a purified remnant that returns (Isaiah 7).

SHEATH  (נﬢן (naw dawn); ﬨעﬧ (tah ‘ar), scabbard)  The case or covering for a sword; figuratively it is used for the sword of the threatening judgment of God.

SHEBA  (שבע, seven, oath (seven victims were sacrificed to confirm an oath)  1.  The ancestor and origin of this Gad tribe’s family name; he was descended from Abihail (I Chronicles 5).  2.  A Benjaminite of the hill country of Ephraim; a member of the Bichrite clan.  He perished in an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the throne of David (II Samuel 20).  As a Benjaminite he represented the deep-seated hatred between the royal houses, those supporting David, and those supporting Absalom, David’s son.  David commissioned Abishai to lead the royal guards in an attack upon Sheba.  Joab accompanied his brother Abishai, and slew Amasa.  Sheba was at Abel of Beth-maacah.  Joab besieged the city until the inhabitants cast Sheba’s head over the wall.

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     3.  A town of Simeon in the south of Judah.  Some scholars consider Sheba to be the same as Shema. Others have supposed it to be a scribal error for the preceding name Beer-Sheba.  It is plausible to suppose that Sheba and Beer-sheba are parts of the same city.  Sheba would then be Tell es-Saba, located about 3 km east of the modern Bir es-Saba.  4.  See Sabeans.

SHEBA, QUEEN OF (־שבאﬤﬨמל (ma lek kath  she ba))  A queen who, having heard the fame of Solomon’s wisdom, “came to test him with hard questions.”  The Assyrian Tiglath-pileser IV records tribute from an Arabian queen in 732 B.C. and lists Sheba among the tribes of Northwestern Arabia.  The Sheba in the south was a center for overland trade.  The primary objective of the meeting of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba was probably trade.  The Jewish historian connects the Queen of Sheba with Ethiopia.  The tradition that the Abyssinian royal line has its direct descent from Solomon and the Queen of Sheba is difficult to substantiate.

SHEBANIAH  (שבניה, tender one of the Lord)  1.  One of the priests appointed to “blow the trumpets before the ark of God” (I Chronicles 15).  2.  One of the Levites leading the worship at the public fast associated with Ezra’s reading the Law (Nehemiah 9, 10).  3.  Another Levite signatory to the covenant of Ezra (Neh. 10).

     4.  A priestly house in the postexilic period (Nehemiah 12), a representative of which was among those signatory to the covenant [The last three entries could be taken as Shecaniah, according to some manuscripts].

SHEBARIM (םﬧיהשב (ha shah bawr yeem), quarries, from the root sabar meaning “break.”)  A place between Ai and Jericho to which the men of Ai pursued the Israelites (Joshua 7).  The word has also been translated as a common noun.

SHEBAT (שבט, from the root meaning “rod,” “staff,” “measure.”  The 11^th month in the Hebrew calendar, corresponding to part of January and February (Zechariah 1).

SHEBER  (ﬧשב, lion, from the root “to break apart.”)  Son of Caleb and his concubine Maacah (I Chronicles 2).

SHEBNA  (שבנא, tenderness)  State secretary in King Hezekiah’s court, and possibly palace governor.  When Assyria’s Sennacherib had captured most of rebellious Judah’s cities (701 B.C.) and sought the capitulation of Jerusalem, Shebna was one of three emissaries sent by Hezekiah to negotiate with Assyrians.  Isaiah prophesied punishment for the city for being involved in international power-politics.  There is condemnation of Shebna and the other officials in the oracle because of their counsel of an anti-Assyrian rebellion. 

                 Jerusalem’s immunity from Sargon’s 711 campaign was due to a shift in Judean policy and Shebna’s demotion from palace governor to secretary.  But Shebna did not fall very far from his earlier post.  The state secretary was a ranking official in the later hierarchy as well.  Some scholars have insisted that the Shebna of Isaiah 22 and of chapters 36-37 are different men.  Isaiah 22 implies that the palace governor had broad powers over the nation at large.  The story shows that the state scribe was a principal statesmen in Judah.

SHEBUEL  (שבואל, captive of God)  1.  Son of Gershom; a descendant of Moses; and a Levite in the temple.  He had charge of temple duties and the temple treasury (I Chronicles 26).  2.  A son of David’s seer Heman, he assisted with the temple music (I Chronicles 25).

SHECANIAH  (ﬤניהש, dweller with the Lord)  1.  A descendant of David, the exiled King Jehochin, and Zerubbabel (I Chronicles 3).  2.  A priest in Hezekiah’s time, who assisted in distributing the temple offering among his fellow clergymen (II Chronicles 31).  3.  Hattush (1)’s father, who returned to Judah with Ezra from Exile (Ezra 8).  4. Son of Jahaziel, and one of those who returned to Judah with Ezra from the Exile (Ezra 8).  5.  Son of Jehiel, and one of those who had married a foreign wife while in exile in Babylon (Ezra 10).  6.  Shemaiah (22)’s father, one of those who helped to repair Jerusalem’s wall (Nehemiah 3).  7.  The father-in-law of Tobiah the Ammonite (Nehemiah 6).  A priest who returned with Zerubbabel out of exile in Babylon (Nehemiah 12; I Chronicles 24).  He is probably identical with Shebaniah in Nehemiah 10 and 12.

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SHECHEM  (ﬤםש, portion)  1.  Son of Hamor the Hivite.  His rape of Jacob’s Dinah was avenged by her brothers Simeon and Levi (Gen. 34; Josh. 24; Judg. 9). 2.  One of Joseph’s and Manasseh’s descendants, Joseph’s 1st-born son (Num. 26; Josh. 17)  3.  Shemida’s second-born son of the tribe of Manasseh (I Chron. 7).

SHECHEM (םﬤש, shoulder, part, portions)  Ancient Canaanite city in hill country of Ephraim. Shechem is located about 64 km north of Jerusalem at the east end of the pass between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal, at the intersection of the main north-south and east-west highways.  The city reached its height during the Hyksos period, about the latter half of the 1600s B.C.; it suffered a moderate decline after the Hebrew conquest.

                 Since the time of Eusebius many thought that the city received its name from Shechem son of Hamor.  It now seems more probable that the word meant “shoulder” and that it derived from the geographical setting of the city on the shoulders of the two mountains.  The appearance of the name in Egyptian texts are usually dated in the 1800s B.C.  Shechem is also mentioned in an early 700s Samarian stone engraving.  “Sychar” is thought by some scholarship to be an error for “Shechem” in John 4, and the Romans named it Neapolis.

                 The discovery from excavations leave no doubt that the great city walls, the temple, and other building were those of ancient Shechem.  A good water supply, a fertile plain directly east of the city, and control of the converging highways, combined to make Shechem a wealthy and powerful city.

                 Soon after 1800 formidable defenses were erected and a palace, enclosed by a strong wall.  The palace was rebuilt at least three times during the Hyksos period.  About 1650 B.C. the palace area was filled over, the line of the city wall was moved to the north, and the great temple of Shechem was built over the buried palaces.  Destroyed around 1550 by the Egyptians, a second and smaller temple was built; it was still standing when the city passed peacefully into the hands of the invading Israelites.  Abimelech, son of Gideon (Judges 9) destroyed this temple and the rest of the city.  During the period of the monarchy a granary was built over the temple’s remains.  Shechem enjoyed considerable prosperity in the 800s and 700s, but the Assyrians destroyed the city sometime between 724-721.  Shechem reverted to a village until the Samaritan period. 

                 Scholars do not agree on the dating of the Old Testament (OT) sources which mention Shechem; some must be dated as early as the 800s B.C.; Abraham visited Shechem.  The oak of Moreh nearby, suggests that the Shechem area was a religious center for Abraham.  Jacob also visited Shechem, and on his return hid his father-in-law’s household gods and earrings there.  Jacob’s peaceful intentions and his desire to preserve amity with Shechem’s Canaanites are evident in all the narratives; the bones of Joseph were buried there.

                 Joshua is pictured as calling for a tribal assembly at Shechem; assemblies were also held at Shiloh.  These facts make it probable that both cities served as headquarters and shrines for the tribes prior to the establishment of the capital at Jerusalem.  The covenant concluded by Joshua at Shechem, resulting in a 12-tribe confederacy, rests on an authentic tradition.  After making the covenant there and recording the laws, Joshua placed a great stone under the oak.  Aside from brief references to Shechem’s place in the division of the land, and its designation as a city of refuge, it is not mentioned again until about 1100 B.C., the time of Abimelech.

                 During the United Monarchy, Shechem is not mentioned.  At Solomon’s death, Rehoboam went to Shechem to be crowned king.  After Rehoboam’s failure to win support, Jeroboam “built Shechem.”  Other references to Shechem indicate only that the city continued to be occupied until the time of Jeremiah.  The fate of Shechem during the Assyrian and Babylonian invasions is not described.  A small community of Samaritans continued to dwell in the region; their synagogue is located on the south of Nablus about 5 km from Shechem. 

                 See also entry in the Old Testament Apocrypha/Influences Outside the Bible section of the Appendix.

SHECHEM, TOWER OF  (מגﬢל שﬤם (mig dal  sheh khem))  A place destroyed by Abimelech, whose attack resulted in the destruction of the stronghold of the house of El-berith and the death of about 1,000 men and women who defended it.  It is probable that the tower was on the acropolis in Shechem, where the stronghold or temple-fortress was located.  In the excavation at Shechem a large building measuring about 21 by 26 meters, with walls 5 meters thick was found and is believed to be the temple-fortress and the Tower.

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SHEDEUR (ﬢיאוﬧש, darting or shedding light; another translation is “Shaddai is light”)  The father of Elizur, who was the leader of Reuben in the wilderness.  Depending on whether the Hebrew vav is an “o” or a “u,” the word could have been derived from the root-word meaning “light” or “fire.”

SHEEP (צאן (tseh ‘own), small cattle, goats; probaton (pro bah ton))  References to sheep in the Bible occur more than 500 times, if one includes “lamb” and “ram.”  Sheep represented the chief wealth and livelihood of pastoral peoples: food to eat; milk to drink; and wool for weaving.  Inevitably also sheep served as a medium of exchange and figured centrally in the sacrificial system as burnt, sin, guilt, or peace offering. 

                 The chief Palestinian sheep breed is today, and has been from the beginning, the so called broad-tail sheep.  In view of the very nature of sheep and the corresponding relationship between the sheep and the shepherd, it is not at all surprising that in figurative-theological language the sheep and the shepherd are repeatedly employed, from the famous “The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want (Psalm 23),” to Jeremiah 23:3-4:  “I will gather the remnant of my flock out of all the lands where I have driven them, and I will bring them back to their fold . . .  I will raise up shepherds over them who will shepherd them, and they shall not fear any longer. . .”, to Mark 6:34: [Jesus] “saw a great crowd; and he had compassion for them, because they were like sheep without a shepherd, and he began to teach them many things.” 

                 The most extended Old Testament biblical allegory of the shepherd is Ezekiel 34.  It opens with the prophetic condemnation of the shepherds of Israel who have been feeding, not their sheep, but only themselves.

            “. . . no longer shall the shepherds feed themselves. I will rescue my sheep from their mouths. . .  I myself will search for my sheep and I will seek them out as shepherds seek out their flocks . . . from all the places to which they have been scattered . . .  I will feed them with good pasture and the heights of Israel shall be their pasture . . .  I myself will be the shepherd of my sheep, and I will make them lie down, says the Lord God.  I will seek the lost, and I will bring back the strayed, and I will bind up the injured, and I will strengthen the weak, but the fat and strong I will destroy.  I will feed them with justice.”  (Ezekiel 34: 10-12, 14-16)

            In the New Testament the shepherd figure and the sheep finds in Christian faith its most profound application in Christ as the good Shepherd of all sheep, as shown in the quote above from Mark 6.  The Gospel of John 10 has the most extended allegory of the shepherd.  The last sentence cited here echoes Ezekiel 37:24.

            “The one who enters by the gate is the shepherd of the sheep . . .  He calls his own sheep by name and leads them out . . . he goes ahead of them, and the sheep follow him because they know his voice . . .  I am the gate.  Whoever enters by me will be saved, and will come in and go out and find pasture.

            I am the good shepherd.  The good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep . . .  I know my own and my own know me . . .  I have other sheep that do not belong to this fold; I must bring them also; they will listen to my voice.  So there will be one flock, one shepherd.  (John 10: 2-4, 9, 11, 14, 16)

      In this passage Christ is the shepherd, who saves, sustains, and redeems the life of all who will come into his fold.  The part cited above beginning “I am the good shepherd . . . ,” has no precedent in the Old Testament.

SHEEP GATE  (הצאן ﬧשע (shah ‘ar  ha tseh ‘own))  A city gate on the north side of Jerusalem, restored by Nehemiah (chapters. 3;12; implicitly referred to in John 5). 

SHEEPFOLD  (גﬢﬧוﬨ צאן  (gee deh roth  tseh ‘own), fenced place for sheep; aulh (aw leh), unroofed enclosure)  An enclosure for sheep against the night hazards of weather, beasts, and robbers.  Several flocks were often watched over by a single attendant through the night, each shepherd then calling forth again his own flock.

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SHEEPSKIN (ﬨחש (tah khash), badger skin; mhlwth (meh lo teh))  The skin of a sheep, presumably tanned.  As sheepskin must have been one of the commonest leathers of biblical Palestine, the lack of references to it in the Bible is remarkable.  In Hebrews 11 being clothed “in skins of sheep and goats” is cited as illustrative of the destitution which the saints of the past had to endure.   

SHEERAH  (הﬧשא, blood-relationship, near-[female] relative)  Either the daughter of Ephraim and the sister of Beriah or the daughter of Beriah, the son of Ephraim (I Chronicles 7). 

SHEHARIAH (שחﬧיה (sheh kha rie ah), whom the Lord seeks)  A son of Jeroham of the tribe of Benjamin. He was a chief in his tribe dwelling in Jerusalem (I Chronicles 8).

SHEKEL  (שקל, standard weight for coins)  A weight, and later the coin itself.  In early Babylonian times the shekel weight varied from 8.3 grams to 16.7 grams.  In Israelite times the shekel seems to have averaged 11.4 grams.  (See also Money, Coins; Piece (of Money); Weights and Measures.)

SHEKINAH (שﬤניה, that which dwells (with the Lord?))  The word used in the Targums and rabbinic writings as a roundabout way to express the reverent nearness of God to God’s people.  The word is not found in the Bible, but it is rooted in the Old Testament (OT).  The OT represents God’s presence in many ways, but the general idea is related to the teaching that Yahweh chooses to dwell with Israel by putting God’s “name” in a special place.  (See also entry in the OT Apocrypha/Influences Outside the Bible section of the Appendix.)

                 Christ’s identification with the Shekinah is suggested in Paul’s letters (e.g. Colossians 1, 2; Ephesians 1;  I Corinthians 2; and Romans 3, 5, 8).  The Spirit, who makes known God’s wisdom in the crucified Christ, brings freedom to those who turn to behold the “glory of the Lord” and are transformed “from one glory to another (II Corinthians 3). Paul preached the “gospel of the glory of Christ,” because God had made the light to shine out of the darkness “to give the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Christ.”  In Romans it was “by the glory of the Father” that Jesus was raised from the dead, and those who live the spiritual life find the sufferings of the present unworthy to compare “with the glory that is to be revealed.”

                 At the Transfiguration (Luke 9) “they saw his glory.”  Peter suggested that three tabernacles be built, and “a shining cloud of glory came over them (translation mine)”.  The word used here for “glory,” epeokiazen, is the same word used by the primary Greek OT in Exodus 40 to describe the Lord’s glory in the tabernacle.  On the Damascus Road, Paul saw a “light from heaven, brighter than the sun.”  It is not possible to demonstrate beyond doubt that the idea of the Shekinah colors the content of these narratives, but it is difficult to resist the conclusion that Hebraic roots are far deeper than the Greek.

                 John’s Gospel has so many echoes of the Shekinah glory that it has been called the “Gospel of the glory.”  The event of the incarnation is nothing less than the glory of God pitching a tent in human flesh.  Jesus told his disciples: “I am the light of the world.”  In Jesus’ prayer of consecration in John 17 is the petition that the disciples may behold the glory which the Father gave the Son before the world’s foundation.  The rest of the New Testament also reflects the idea of the Shekinah (e.g. James 2; I Peter 4; II Peter 1; and Hebrews 1, 9).

SHELAH  (שלה, missile, dart, spear)  1.  A Shemite; father of Eber, and son Arpachshad (Genesis 10, 11).          2.  The third son of Judah, ancestor of the Shelanites (Numbers 26; I Chronicles 4).

SHELAH, POOL OF ( בﬧﬤﬨ השלח (beh rah kath  ha sheh lakh), pool of water sent forth)  A reservoir of the King’s Garden in Jerusalem (Nehemiah 3), presumably the same as the King’s Pool in the tract of the valley between Jerusalem’s two hill, towards the southern end.  It receives the water from Gihon outside the eastern wall, by means of an aqueduct along the right bank of the Kidron.  During the Assyrian threat, the pool was transformed so as to accommodate the water flowing from the tunnel of Hezekiah.

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SHELEMIAH  (שלמיה, retribution of the Lord)  1.  A Korahite, of Levitical descent, chosen to be a gatekeeper of the sanctuary in I Chronicles 23-26; he is called Meshelemiah.  2.  Son of Cushi, and ancestor of Jehudi, (Jeremiah 36).  3.  Son of Abdeel; one of three men Jehoiakim sent to take Baruch and Jeremiah after the reading of the first scroll of Jeremiah’s prophecies (Jeremiah 36).  4.  The father of Jehucal (Jeremiah 37).    

     2.  Hananiah’s son, and Irijah’s father (Jeremiah 37).  6.  Binnui’s son in a list of those who put away foreign wives and their children (Ezra 10).  7.  Hananiah’s father (Nehemiah 3).  8.  A priest, 1 of 3 men Nehemiah put in charge of the distribution of temple tithes to the Levites (Nehemiah 13).

SHELEPH (שלף, drawn sword)  Joktan’s son, and hence the name of Arabian tribe (Genesis 10; I Chronicles 20).  The word is the same as the Arabian Salaf; it occurs in Sabean inscriptions as the name of a Yemenite district.

SHELESH (שלש, triad)  A head of a father’s house in the tribe of Asher (I Chronicles 7).

SHELOMI  (שלמי, peaceable)  The father of the Asherite leader Shihud, who was selected to help superintend distribution of western Jordanian Canaan among the tribes.

SHELOMITH  (ﬨשלמי, peaceable)  1. A Danite, Dibri’s daughter, during the time of the wandering in the wilderness; mother of a sojourner among the Israelites who blasphemed the Name and cursed; he was stoned (Lev. 24).  2. Zerubbabel’s daughter (I Chron. 3).  3. A Levite, Izhar’s chief son (I Chron. 23).  4. Absalom’s son or daughter (II Chron. 11).  5. Josiphah’s son, head of a father’s house that returned with Ezra from Babylon. 

SHELOMOTH  (ﬨשלמו, whole)  1. Gershonite Levite, head of a father’s house (I Chr. 23).  2.  A Levite, son of Izhar (I Chr. 23).  3. A descendant of Moses through Eliezer.  In the account of David’s arrangement for temple officials, Shelomoth and his brethren were in charge of all the dedicated treasure (I Chr. 26).

SHELUMIEL (שלמיאל, peace with or friend of God)  He was one of Twelve tribal leaders of deputies who assisted Moses into taking a census of Israel and in other tasks in the wilderness.  The apocryphal book of Judith traces Judith to this person.

SHEM  (שם, fame, renown, “household name after death”)  Eldest son of Noah; the ancestor who gave the Semites their name generally and the Hebrews especially.

                 From the Yahwist (J) comes the origins of Shem’s name.  When Noah became drunk and lay uncovered in his tent, “his youngest son brought shame upon himself by seeing his father’s nakedness.”  Shem and Japheth, by walking backward, covered their father without dishonoring themselves.  This story indicates strongly that an earlier tradition knew Noah’s three sons as Shem, Japheth and Canaan.  Further, the Shem of this story seems quite different from the ancestor of Mesopotamian families listed by the Priestly writer (P) in Genesis 10.  Chapter 9: 25-27 is best viewed as an old piece used by J to explain why the Israelites (Shem) have to share the Promised Land (Canaan) with the Philistines (Japheth).  In the J genealogy Shem is the “father of all the children of Eber.”  P links Shem firmly to the Noah of the Flood, furnishing the statistics of his life, and expanding his narrow Palestinian locale into the arena of world history.  At the age of 100 Shem begat Arpachshad, then lived 500 years longer and had other children.

SHEMA  (שמע, hear)  The 1st word of Deuteronomy 6:4: Hear, O Israel. The Lord our God is God alone (New Revised Standard Version (NRSV).”  In an expanded form it became Judaism’s confession of faith.  In the NRSV, 4 possibilities are offered for translation.  The alternative lies between an emphasis upon Yahweh’s uniqueness and exclusiveness and an emphasis upon Yahweh as an integral person.  It is not impossible that both these distinction are contained in the phrase.  The Shema originally contained only verse 4, but was expanded to include verses 5-9, Deuteronomy 11:13-21, and Numbers 15:37-41. The first section includes the twofold injunction to love Yahweh utterly and to manifest this by calling to mind God’s commandments.  Rabbinic law establishes the ancient ritual of reciting the Shema morning and evening.
           The dispute about which of the more than 600 commandments of the law was most important is characteristic of rabbinical discussions during and right after the time of Jesus’ preaching. It was in this context that the question about the “greatest commandment” was put to Jesus. He answered with the Shema, which implies the 1st two commandments and Leviticus 19:18: “You shall love your neighbor as yourself,” which summarizes commandments 3-10; they deal with responsibility toward the individuals in one’s community.
           See Worship in NT, Jewish entry in the Old Testament (OT) Apocrypha/Influences outside the OT section of the Appendix for content.

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SHEMAAH (שמעה, obedience) The father of Ahiezer and Joash, who were among the disaffected Benjaminite warriors who joined the proscribed forces of David at Ziklag.

SHEMAIAH (שמעיה, the Lord has heard) 1. A chief of Simeon’s tribe (I Chron. 4). 2. The ancestor and origin of a Reubenite family name (I Chron. 5). 3. Head of a Levite house; chief of Elizaphan’s sons. He and 200 of his brethren were among the Levites, whom David charged with transporting the ark (I Chron. 15). 4. A Levite; son of Nethanel. He was the scribe who recorded the assignment by lot of 24 divisions of priests (I Chron. 23-26). 5. A Levite; the eldest son of Obed-edom, and the father of valiant sons (I Chron. 26).

     6.   A prophet in Rehoboam’s reign who forbade the king to fight in order to suppress the revolt of the 10 northern tribes (I Kings 12).  Since civil war continued throughout Rehoboam’s reign, Shemaiah and his action probably are fictional.  Judah sinned against Yahweh, so Yahweh permitted Shishak’s invasion.  The Chronicler cited a history written by Shemaiah the prophet and Iddo the seer (II Chron. 12).

    7.  One of the 9 Levites sent by Jehoshaphat to teach the law in the towns of Judah (II Chron. 17).   8.  A Levite of Jeduthun’s family; one of 14 Levites who played a leading part in the temple cleansing during Hezekiah’s reign (II Chron. 29-31).  9.  A member of a commission composed of Levites, which distributed the first fruits, tithes, and offerings to the priests and Levites during Hezekiah’s reign (II Chron. 29-31).  10.  One of Shecaniah’s 6 sons in a list of David’s descendants (I Chron. 3).  11.  Uriah the prophet’s father (Jer. 26).  12.  A leader in Babylonia; a Nehelamite; one of those among the exiles who proclaimed a speedy return from captivity.  Jeremiah denounced Shemaiah as a false prophet and foretold that neither he nor his descendants would live to see the Return (Jer. 29).  13.  Deliah’s father (Jer. 36).

     14.  A Levite descendant of Merari who helped repopulate Jerusalem after Exile; a temple overseer of non-cultic affairs (I Chron. 9; Neh. 11).  15.  A Levite who returned to Jerusalem after Exile; a Jeduthun descendant; Obadiah’s father (I Chron. 9).  16.  A Levite chief who donated animals to the Levites for Josiah’s Passover celebration (II Chron. 35).  17.  Adonikam’s son; head of house that returned with Ezra from Exile (Ezra 8).  18.  A leading man in a delegation sent by Ezra to Iddo at Casiphia to obtain Levites (Ezra 8).     19.  A priest, descended from Harim, among those who put away foreign wives and their children (Ezra 10).      20.  A layman, descended from Harim, in the group mentioned in 19 above (Ezra 10). 

          21. East Gate keeper, probably a Levite; Shecaniah’s son.  He repaired part of Jerusalem’s wall in Nehemiah’s time (Neh. 3).  22. Perhaps a prophet, but probably a priest, since he had access to the temple; Delaiah’s son and a Mehetabel descendant.  He was hired to make Nehemiah fear assassination, so as to discredit Nehemiah as a coward and as sacrilegious for taking refuge in the temple, where only priests were allowed (Neh. 6).  23. A priestly family’s name occurring in 3 lists of those who: sealed the covenant; returned with Zerubbabel; and were priests in Joakim’s time (Neh. 10, 12). 24. A priest in the counterclockwise procession on Jerusalem’s walls (Neh. 12). 25. Probably a Levite and a Asaph descendant (Neh. 12). 26, 27. Two different musicians in the counterclockwise procession on Jerusalem’s walls, during their dedication (Neh. 12).

SHEMARIAH  (ﬧיהשמ, whom the Lord keeps)  1.  One of the mighty Benjaminite warriors who joined David at Ziklag (I Chronicles 12).  2.  A son of Rehoboam (II Chronicles 11:19).  3.  A son of Harim in a list of those who put away foreign wives and their children (Ezra 10).  4.  Binnui’s son in the list just mentioned (Ezra 10).

SHEMEBER  (ﬧשמאב, soaring on high)  King of Zeboiim; one of the five rebel kings defeated in the Valley of Siddim by a coalition of Eastern kings (Genesis 14).

SHEMED (ﬢשמ, destruction)  Head of a house of the Benjamin tribe, descended from Shaharaim by Hushim.

SHEMER (ﬧשמ, keeper, watcher) 1.  The original clan or owner of the hill upon which Omri built Samaria (Someron), which was originally named after this clan (I Kings 16).  2.  An ancestor of a Levitical singer in the Jerusalem temple (I Chronicles 6).  3.  A remote ancestor of Asher (I Chronicles 7).

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SHEMIDA (ﬢעשמי, fame of knowledge, or [the god] Eshmun has known)  Mannasseh’s descendant, a Gileadite enumerated in the second census list taken by Moses.  The father of Ahian, Shechem, Likhi, and Aniam, he was the ancestor and origin of the name Shemidaites, a Manasseh family (Num. 26; Josh. 17; I Chr. 7).

SHEMIRAMOTH (שמיﬧמוﬨ name of exaltation, watching of the heights)  1.  A Levite harpist among those whom David charged to provide music during the Ark of the Covenant’s transportation to Obed-Edom.

     2.   A Levite in a commission sent by Jehoshaphat to teach the law in the towns of Judah (II Chr. 17).

SHEMUEL (שמואל, heard of God, same as Samuel)  1.  Son of Ammihud; the leader representing the tribe of Simeon in the commission appointed to divide the land of Canaan (Numbers 34).  2.  A son of Tola; head of a father’s house in the tribe of Issachar (I Chr. 7).

SHENAZZAR (שנאצﬧ, probably error, should be Sheshbazzar) The fourth son of the exiled King Jehoiachin.

SHEPHAM (שפם, elevated place)  A place not far from Riblah on the upper Orontes, in northeastern Canaan.

SHEPHATIAH (שפטיה, whom the Lord judges, defends)  1.  One of the sons born to David and Abital at Hebron (II Sam. 3; I Chron. 3).  2.  A Haruphite, one of the mighty Benjaminite warriors who joined David at Ziklag (I Chron. 12).  3.  Maacah’s son and the leader of the tribe of Simeon during David’s reign (I Chron. 27).      4.  A son of King Jehoshaphat (II Chron. 21).  5.  A prince, son of Mattan.  One of the four pro-Egyptian officials who charged Zedekiah to put Jeremiah to death because his prophecies were weakening the defenders of Jerusalem (Jer. 38).  6.  Founder of a family, of which 372 members returned from Babylonia with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2; Neh. 7).  7.  Head of a family of Solomon’s servants which returned from Babylonia with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2; Neh. 7).  8.  An ancestral name of the Meshullam, in a list of the Benjaminite families repopulating Jerusalem after the Exile (I Chron. 9).  9.  An ancestral name of a Judahite family, descended from Perez, inhabiting Jerusalem in the time of Nehemiah (Neh 11).

SHEPHELAH (שפלה, low country)  A foothill region between the Philistine coastal plain and the Judean high-lands, severed from the later by a series of north-south valleys. 

            The term designating this district appears 20 times in the Hebrew text of the Old Testament (OT).  All appearances of the term refer to the foothill district west of the Judean highlands; it is a major geographical division of Judah.  The Shephelah OT cities are appropriately situated in this foothill district.  Shephelah’s extent according to Eusebius includes “the low country about Eleutheropolis toward the north and west.  From the OT lists, its north-south limits are the fortress of Eglon in the south, and the town of Adida in the north.

            A series of north-south valleys severed the Shephelah’s broad hills from the Judean mountains and made this a distinct district.  Its hills average a height slightly less than 220 meters, with a maximum of 450 meters in the south.  It served as Judah’s first line of defense against the Philistines.  The north-south moats and steep mountains served as the chief barrier to ascent into the hill country.

            A series of wide valleys cross the Shephelah from east to west.  These form the natural routes by which access is gained into the Judean range.  Near the valleys’ ends were some of the country’s strongest fortresses (e.g.  Aijalon, Elah, and Zephathah).  In addition to its strategic significance, the Shephelah was agriculturally important.  The rich, red soil of the cross-valleys produced abundant grain, and on its intervening slopes flourished olive and sycamore trees.  Grapes also grew and in some areas there was enough grass for grazing.

SHEPHER, MOUNT (ﬧ שפﬧה, mount of beauty, pleasantness)  A place the Israelites stopped in the wilderness.

SHEPHERD.  See Sheep.

SHEPHERD OF HERMAS.  See Hermas, Shepherd of, in Old Testament/Influences Outside the Bible section of Appendix.

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SHEPHO (שפו, eminent, excellent)  Ancestor of a Horite sub-clan in Edom; fourth son of clan chief Shobal.

SHEPHUPHAM (שפופם, perhaps serpent)  A Benjaminite.  The complicated and disarranged Benjaminite genealogies present a varied pattern in respect to this word.  In Numbers it is the name of a son of Benjamin; in I Chronicles 8 it is the name of a descendant of Benjamin.

SHEREBIAH (ﬧביהש, heat of the Lord)  1. The “man of discretion,” son of Mahli, who was provided for temple service during Ezra’s encampment, and to whom the vessels of the sanctuary were entrusted (Ezra 8).  2. A Levite who attended Ezra’s public reading of the law, shared in its exposition, and was a witness to the covenant renewal (Neh. 8, 9, 10).  3.  A Levite who accompanied Zerubbabel in the return from exile (Neh. 12).

SHERESH (שﬧש, root)  A family of the tribe of Manasseh (I Chronicles 7).

SHESHACH (ﬤשש, bow, stoop, or sink down)  King James Version translation of the Hebrew, which is probably a cryptogram for Babylon.  (Jeremiah 25, 51).  See Athbash.

SHESHAI (ששי, white)  One of three sons of Anak, or “giants,” residing in Hebron when the Israelite spies reconnoitered the land (Num. 13; Josh. 15; Judg. 1).  Sheshai was defeated in Hebron by the invading Israelites.

SHESHAN (ששן, root)  Family head in a genealogical list of Jerahmeel’s descendants, presented with a list of Judah’s descendants (I Chronicles 2).  According to subsequent verses, Sheshan had only daughters.

SHESHBAZZAR (ששבצﬧ, apparently from sinabusur, “[Moon Goddess] Sin protect the father”)  A Babylonian Jew and “prince” (nasf) of Judah with whom the first exiles returned to Jerusalem from Babylonia under the edict of Cyrus (Ezra 1).  The “treasures of the house of the Lord” were consigned to Sheshbazzar to be taken back with him to Jerusalem.  He was, moreover, the first “governor” (pekha) of reestablished Judah.  If he is to be identified with the “Shenassar” of I Chronicles 3, namely a son of the exiled king of Judah, he was then a prince of the Davidic line and an uncle of Zerubbabel.  An inscription from the reign of Nebuchadnezzar re-fers to the sons of the king of Judah, but unfortunately the sons are not mentioned there by name.  Beyond this nothing else is presently known of Sheshbazzar. 

                 Zerubbabel’s public career began under Darius and not under the earlier Cyrus, even though the Chronicler in Ezra 3 has him starting then; several reasons are offered for this, ranging from ignorance, to disregarding, to the false assumption that Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel were the same person.  Ancient historians and many biblical interpreters have also argued that the two names belonged to one individual. Initially there seems to be reasons for thinking that Sheshbazzar was Zerubbabel.  Both were “governor of Judah”; both are identified with the return under Cyrus, and it is possible that both initiated the temple reconstruction.  It has been supposed that Sheshbazzar was this individual’s Babylonian name and Zerubbabel his Jewish name.

                 A greater degree of probability attaches itself to arguments for distinguishing between Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel as 2 separate people.  Inscriptions show that Zerubbabel is Babylonian.  That the Jew Zerubbabel should have had 2 Babylonian names is therefore puzzling.  Haggai and Zechariah clearly associate the career of Zerubbabel with Darius’ reign.  There is the strong probability that the name Sheshbazzar is a scribal error for “Shenazzar,” son of the captive king and uncle of Zerubbabel.  The major significance of Sheshbazzar lies in the fact that Cyrus the Persian ruler delegated authority again in Judah to a scion of the house of David.

           

SHETH (ﬨש, noise, tumult) The term “sons of Sheth” is a descriptive term for Moabites.  Their defeat is foreseen in the oracle of Balaam (Numbers 24).

SHETHAR (ﬨﬧש, star)  One of the 7 princes of Persia under King Ahasuerus, and next to him in rank (Esth. 1).

SHEVA (שוא, vanity)  1.  The secretary in the list of David’s administrative officials.  In charge of the drafting and custody of official documents (II Samuel 20).  2.  A man or family in the genealogy of Caleb; founder of Machbenah and Gibea (I Chronicles 2).

SHIBAH (שבעה, oath) A supposed name of an Isaac well; source of the name Beer-sheba. Apparently there were 2 cities 2 miles apart which became one: Sheba and Beer. Since Beer-sheba eventually became famous as the site’s name, it was connected with 2 stories, each under a different name. One story was Abraham’s bargain with King Gerar; the other was an oath between Isaac & Abimelech. The name fits better with Isaac account.

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SHIBBOLETH (ﬨשבל, ears of grain, flood)  The password whose mispronunciation was used by the Gileadite sentries of Jephthah at the fords of the Jordan to detect enemy Ephraimites. 

                 In Gilead, Jephthah’s army had defeated the Ephraimites; every person was stopped as he attempted to cross the river.  Required to say “Shibboleth,” if instead he said “Sibboleth,” he had betrayed himself as an Ephraimite and was slain on the spot.  It is possible that, rather than being the difference between “s” and “sh,” the Gileadites began the word with a “th,” which the Ephraimites could not say.  This has its modern-day equivalent in Arabic.  This story is the origin of the word “shibboleth” as an English common noun meaning a criterion or test, distinguishing between sects or dialects.  

SHIELD.  See Weapons and Implements of War.

SHIELD-BEARER (נשא הצנה (naw saw’  ha tsee nah), armament bearer)  A warrior’s attendant having the duty of carrying his master’s shield. See Armor-bearer. 

SHIHOR (ﬧשיחו (she khor), black, turbid; Hebrew for part of the Nile) A body of water in northeastern  
      Egypt.

                 The term occurs 4 times in the Masoretic Text as a geographical designation, intimately related to Egypt.  In the Bible, Shihor is described as being east of Egypt or belonging to Egypt.  The precise location of this Egyptian body of water is difficult, since it is closely connected to the identity of Per-Ramses.  If one believes that Per-Ramses is the same as Tanis, the approximate location of Shihor is secured on the eastern Nile Delta.

SHIHOR-LIBNATH (שיחוﬧ ליבנﬨ (she khor  lib nath), black, turbid-white, clearness)  A place on the southern boundary of Asher (Joshua 19).  It is sometimes identified with the Crocodile River, which flows into the Mediterranean almost 10 km south of Dor.  It is also possible that two sites, Shihor and Libnath are intended.

SHIKKERON (שﬤﬧון , drunkenness) A village on Judah’s northern border, rather near the Mediterranean Sea, probably 4.8 km north of ancient Ekron.

SHILHI (שלחי(shil khey), armed) The maternal grandfather of Judah’s King Jehoshaphat (I Kings 22; II Ch. 20).

SHILHIM (שלחים (shil kheem), armed men) A city in southern Judah, not far from Ziklag (Joshua 15).  In Joshua 19, it is called Sharuhen and assigned to Simeon; it is possible that Shilhim is the Canaanite form of the name.

SHILLEM (שלם, retribution) Naphtali’s 4^th son; ancestral head of the Shillemites (Genesis 46; Numbers 26).

SHILOAH, WATERS OF (מי השלח  (may  ha she lo akh), sending forth of water) An aqueduct in Jerusalem (Isaiah 8).  See Siloam.

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SHILOH (שילו, bringer of quiet prosperity; title used for Messiah)  1.  A city in Ephraim, 40 km north of Jerusalem and east of the road from Jerusalem to Shechem.  It was an important Israelite center where the ark of the covenant and the tabernacle remained from the time of Joshua until the days of Samuel.

                 Shiloh was identified with the ruins at Seilun, about 16 km northeast of Bethel.  Evidence of occupation by the Hebrews during the periods of the Old Testament was found, but there is no evidence of a Canaanite city during the Late Bronze period (1600-1200).  The Israelites were the first to build extensively at this site.  Remains of a synagogue and an early Christian church suggest that the traditions concerning Joshua, Eli, and Samuel at Shiloh were kept alive by pilgrimages. Shiloh is located on a low elevation overshadowed by hills on all sides except at the southwest.  The terrain prevented it from being easily defended against enemies.

                 In Joshua’s time, Shiloh was the scene of an assembly, and the tent of meeting was set up there.  Joshua cast lots to apportion the territory.  Joshua’s dates are uncertain, but there is archaeological evidence of Shiloh’s occupation from as early as 1200 B.C. to 1050 B.C.  During the period of the judges, cities other than Shiloh began to have importance.  Judges 18 implies that the temple remained at Shiloh for a long time.  References to the dances of Shiloh’s daughters suggest the existence of some type of a fertility cult at the city.  The bringing of 400 young virgins to Shiloh following Jabesh-gilead’s defeat is also suggestive of such a cult. 

                 Further information about Shiloh can be gleaned from the visit of Elkanah and Hannah to the city.  Hannah’s desire for a child and the conduct of Eli’s sons with the women who served at the shrine suggest the presence of a Canaanite type of fertility cult at Shiloh.  The tradition concerning Eli’s virtue, the Nazirite vow of Hannah and the designation of Samuel as a prophet make it seem probable that Shiloh was the scene of an early struggle on the part of the Israelites against the fertility cult of the Canaanites.

                  The priests of Shiloh settled at Nob.  The visit of Jeroboam’s wife to the Prophet Ahijah at Shiloh is evidence for the existence of a shrine there as late as 922 B.C.  Shiloh never again regained its former importance.  As a result, we have Jeremiah’s warning that the temple in Jerusalem would suffer a fate similar to Shiloh.  The city seems to have been occupied as late as the time of Gedaliah in Nehemiah’s time.

     2.   King James Version translation of the Hebrew word, in the phrase “until Shiloh come” (Jacob’s Blessing; Genesis 49).  The reference is probably to David, but it is hardly a proper name.  If the northern city is intended then the phrase might speak of the extension of Judean sovereignty over Israel.  The term is commonly read shella, “to whom.” The New Revised Standard Version has “until tribute comes to him”; the footnote adds “to whom it belongs.”  With different vowels assumed, it becomes shayyalo, “his ruler,” which would admirably solve the semantic problem.

     Most interpreters agree that a Judean leader is referred to in the verse.  Two other blessings from Moses and Balaam also reflect the United Monarchy’s political expansion.  Most likely then, the person alluded to is David the conqueror.  Centuries later, when a messiah of Judean origin was expected, the passage was interpreted of the David’s righteous offshoot.  Christian interpreters since the 1500s A.D. have frequently identified Shiloh with the Messiah, the “bringer of quiet prosperity” (See meaning of Hebrew word at beginning).

SHILONITE (שילוני, of Shiloh) 1.  A designation of the prophet Ahijah as a man of Shiloh (I Kings 11).

                 2.   A designation of a member of one of the Judean families returning from exile (I Chronicles 9; Nehemiah 11).  It is probable that it should be said as “Shelanite” to indicate a descendant of Shelah.

SHILSHAH (שלשה, triad) A division of the Zophah clan of the tribe of Asher (I Chronicles 7).

SHIMEA (שמעא, report)  1. The third son of Jesse (David’s father); the father of the wily Jonadab, dubious friend of Ammon, and of Jonathon the slayer of a Philistine giant.  Shammah was in Saul’s army during the Philistine campaign, and witnessed the giant’s defeat at the hands of his youngest brother (I Sam. 17).  2. One of David’s sons born in Jerusalem (II Sam. 5; I Chron. 3, 14).  3. A Levite of the family of Merari (I Chron. 6).  4. A Levite of the Gershom family (I Chron. 6).  5.   A Benjaminite, descendant of Jeiel (I Chron. 8, 9).

SHIMEATH (ﬨשמע, report)  The mother or father of one of the conspirators who murdered Joash king of Judah.

SHIMEATHITES (ﬨיםשמע, see Shimeath)  A subdivision of Calebites named in a list of three “families . . . of the scribes that dwelt at Jabez.”  The name may be derived from an unknown person or place.  The Shimeathites may have been one of the groups of Kenites who had participated in the northward movement to occupy southern Palestine during the Conquest, or who were pushed northward by Edomites.

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SHIMEI (שמעי, renowned) 1.  A grandson of Levi; the second of Gershon’s 2 sons.  He was the founder of a sub-division of the families of Levites descended from Gershon (Ex. 6; Num. 3; I Chron. 6, 23).  2. A Benjaminite, Gera’s descendant; he belonged to Saul’s house.  Shimei cursed David and voiced the latent protest that David had supplanted Saul’s house, and he charged David with bloodguilt; David prevented the killing of Shimei.  After Absalom’s revolt was overcome, Shimei with 1,000 Benjaminites rushed to be among the first to meet David.  David with an oath granted royal clemency.  One of David’s deathbed charges to Solomon was that he remove the curse of Shimei.  David’s clemency oath was not binding on Solomon, and he was to watch for an opportunity to execute Shimei. 3 years later Shimei violated his oath to stay in Jerusalem by going to Gath to bring back runaway slaves. Upon his return Solomon executed him. (II Sam. 16, 19; I Kings 2).

     3. King David’s brother (II Sam. 21) 4. One of those who didn’t support the usurpation attempted by Adonijah.  Possibly he is to be identified with the son of Ela who was one of Solomon’s 12 administrative officers (I Kings 1; 4). 5. Zerubbabel’s brother (I Chron. 3). 6. Large family of Simeon’s clan (I Chron. 4). 7. Ancestor and origin of name of a Reuben family (I Chron. 5).  8. A Levite of the Merari family (I Chron. 6).               

     9.  A Levite of the family of Gershom  (I Chronicles 6).  10. A Benjaminite, head of a father’s house (I Chronicles 8).  11.  A postexilic family of Levitical singers of the Jeduthun group (I Chronicles 25).  12.  A Ramathite, one of David’s officers over the king’s vineyards (I Chronicles 27).  13.  A Levite of the family of Heman.  He took a leading part in the cleansing of the temple during the reign of Hezekiah (II Chronicles 29). 

     14.  A Levite in charge of the overseers of the contributions, tithes, and dedicated things.  The account describes Hezekiah’s reform but reflects post-exilic times (II Chronicles 31).  15. A Levite among those who put away foreign wives and children according to Ezra’s reform (Ezra 10).   16.  A son of Hashum among those who put away foreign wives and children according to Ezra’s reform (Ezra 10). 17.  A son of Binnui among those who put away foreign wives and children according to Ezra’s reform (Ezra 10). 18.  A Benjaminite, a descendant of Kish and a remote ancestor of Mordecai (Esther 2).

SHIMEON (שמעון, a hearing, accepting) One of Ezra’s contemporaries who are listed as having married foreign wives (Ezra 10).

SHIMON (שימון, desert) A family or clan of the tribe of Judah (I Chronicles 4).

SHIMRATH (ﬧﬨשמ, watch, guard)  A member of Benjamin’s tribe, listed as one of the sons of Shimei (I Chr. 8).

SHIMRI (ﬧישמ, watchful) 1. A Simeonite, an ancestor of Zisa (I Chronicles 4).  2. The father of Jediael and probably Joha, two of David’s Mighty Men (I Chronicles 11).  3.  The chief son of Hosah of the line of Merari, in a division of temple gatekeepers (I Chronicles 26).  4. A Levite of the family of Elizaphan.  He is ascribed a leading part in the cleansing of the temple (II Chronicles 29).

SHIMRITH (ﬨיﬧשמ, keeper)  A Moabite and Jehozabad’s mother, a conspirator who killed Joash king of Judah.          

SHIMRON (ןשמﬧו,watch, guard) 1. Issachar’s fourth son; ancestral head of the Shimronites (Gen. 46; Num. 26).

     2.   A Canaanite royal town. Its king joined Jabin confederacy against Joshua and was defeated (Josh 11).

SHIMRON-MERON ( שמﬧון מﬧאון )  A Canaanite royal town, whose king Joshua (Josh 12).  It is probable that “Shimron” and “Meron” should be read separately.

SHIMSHAI (שמשי, sun-like) An official in the Persian government service for the province” Beyond the River [Euphrates].”  He co-sponsored a letter to Artaxerxes opposing the rebuilding of post-exilic Jerusalem.  With the support of the royal court and his associates, he forced this work to a halt.

SHINAB (שנאב, father’s sharpness)  King of Admah; one of the five southern Palestinian rulers who rebelled against Chedorlaomer (Genesis 14).

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SHINAR (ﬧשנע) A name for Babylonia. According to biblical tradition Nimrod ruled Babel, Erech, and Accad (Babylon, Uruk, and Akkade respectively). The land of Shinar must have comprised the territories known anciently as Sumer and Akkad, stretching from slightly north of Baghdad to slightly south of Nasiriyeh; no indigenous term which could underlie the Hebrew “Shinar” is known.  According to biblical tradition the tower of Babel was built in Shinar.  In Daniel 1 it is related that Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon took temple treasures from Jerusalem to Shinar.  The “ephah” in Zechariah’s vision was to be taken to the land of Shinar (Zech. 5).

SHIPHI (שפעי, abundant) A Simeonite descended from Shemaiah; the father of Ziza (I Chr. 4)

SHIPHMITE (השפמי (ha shif me), the one of an elevated place) A Shepham(?) or Siphmoth (?) native (I Chr. 27).

SHIPHRAH (פﬧהש, brightness, beauty) One of the two Hebrew midwives ordered by the king of Egypt to kill all male children (Exodus 1).

SHIPHTAN (שפטן, judicial)  The father of the Ephraimite leader Kemuel, who was selected to help superintend the distribution of western Jordanian Canaan (Numbers 34).

SHIPMASTER (kubernhthV (kih ber neh tes), pilot, helmsman) The steersman or helmsman, the ship’s pilot, who was sometimes also the owner of the ship.  Revelation 18’s writer records the cry which the shipmasters and other seafarers uttered as they saw smoke rising from Rome: “What city was like the great city?” 

SHIPS AND SAILING (See Glossary)

      Hebrew

            אני,אניה  (‘ah nee, ‘ah nee aw), fleet, ship

            גמא ﬤלי (keh lee  go meh), ship of reeds

            הספני (seh pee nah), ship

            צי (tsee), ship, from the root for “desert”    

      Greek

            nauV (naw oos), ship                             ploiarion (ploy ar eon), boat

ploion (ploy on), ship                            skafh (skah fee), hollowed out boat 

                 Because of the absence of good natural harbors on the Mediterranean south of the Carmel Range and the domination of the coastal cities by the Philistines, the sea was a barrier, somewhat like a forbidding desert, and not a highway for Israel.

                 Old Testament Sailing—In the period of the judges the northern tribes of Asher, Dan, and Zebulun appear to sail the Mediterranean (Genesis 49; Judges 5).  Solomon built a fleet of ships at Ezion-Geber, at the head of the Gulf of Aqabah with the help of Hiram of Tyre, and engaged in trade with Ophir (I Kings 9).  Once again, in the time Jehoshaphat, when Edom was weak, an attempt was made to revive the Ophir trade in “ships of Tarshish,” but the ships were wrecked at Ezion-geber (I Kings 22).

                 As early as the Old Kingdom of Egypt (about 2650 B.C.) timber was shipped by sea from Phoenicia to Egypt.  Snefru’s Annals mention ships of over 51 meters in length.  From a little over a century before Solomon’s time comes the account of the Egyptian Wen-Amon’s journey to Phoenicia to buy timber.  Pictures of seagoing ships appear as early as the Old Kingdom in Egyptian pictures.  These sailing vessels have 1 mast with a crow’s-nest on it, and a large rectangular sail. The ship steers with 2 oars, one on each side of the stern.

                 From Phoenicia itself representation of ships are few, and those which do exist come from later periods than those found in Assyria and Egypt.  The most complete representation of a ship discovered in Phoenicia is found on a sarcophagus found at Sidon.  In Palestine itself there has been found but one picture of a ship.  Like the Phoenician ships it carried a sail and was equipped with oars.

                From Tiglath-pileser I’s time(1114-1076 B.C.), Assyrian kings made expeditions westward to the sea.  Sargon II’s palace (721-705 B.C.) had a relief depicting the transporting of logs.  The ships have high, horse-headed prows and high sterns and are propelled by both oars and a sail. A 3-decked warship with sharply pointed prow, driven forward by oars, is pictured on a relief from Sennacherib’s time (704-681).  

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                New Testament Sailing—Agrippa used a ship with 2 rows of oars on each side, a bireme at the battle of Actium in 31 B.C.  Warships depended on oars rather than sails, for the sake of maneuverability.  The most popular types at the time were biremes and triremes, although larger ships were built.  It has been estimated that there were 18 oars on each side.  With one man for each lower and two for each upper oar, there would be 108 rowers.  25 marines and 80 soldiers make for a total crew of 213.  The length is estimated at 31 meters, the beam at over 5 meters; weight of cargo, about 28 metric tons; and a displacement of 74 metric tons.  Yet this was regarded as a warship of moderate size.  Rams were standard equipment, as were grappling hooks to permit boarding and hand-to-hand fighting. 

                 Paul’s famous trip to Rome (Acts 27) was made in 3 ships, at least 2 of which were grain ships.  There was a minimum of space for passengers.  Cabins would be reserved for wealthy or official personnel.  Travelers such as Paul and his companions would have to ride in steerage.  With hatches closed to protect cargo and prevent foundering ventilation and living conditions in general below deck would have been exceedingly bad.

                 The undersea photograph of a wreck right before the time of Christ, lying on the sea floor near the French Riviera shows that the ship was carrying a great cargo of wine, oil, and other foods from South Italy to France.  The grain ships sailing from Italy, Greece, or any of the islands, as Rhodes, would carry wine and similar items in the amphorae.  Evidence of commerce is provided by quantities of stamped wine-jar handles from Rhodes which have been found in such places as Asia Minor, North Africa and Palestine.                  

                 Some Roman grain ships have mainsails ornamented with the traditional wolf and her young.  Rudders were of the quarter type; each ship had two.  Each merchantman carried the statue of the deity from whom it got its name.  Paul’s ship from Malta to Puteoli in the spring was the Castor and Pollux (Acts 27).  All the pictures of grain ships show a great square mainsail and short raked foremast with a foresail.  As all other tackling had been cast overboard, only this small sail could be hoisted to drive the ship on the beach.  It is evident that the types of sails used did not permit ships to make much headway in the face of a strong wind.

                 The only well-known port on the coast of Syria antiquity was Tyre; it was for many centuries the greatest shipping center on the Mediterranean.  Tyre continued to prosper and withstand all attacks until Alexander conquered it in 332 B.C.  After that it declined, outstripped by Antioch, Ephesus, Corinth, Alexandria, and Rome.  Paul sailed directly to Tyre on a ship bound for Phoenicia on his 3^rd missionary journey.  Caesarea was Tyre’s rival at the time, even though it had no natural harbor.  Herod built this port on the old site of Strato’s Tower as Judea’s show place.  He constructed a breakwater 60 meters wide of huge blocks of stone.   

                  The best-known sea lanes of the time were those used by Rome to import grain from Egypt.  Ships went directly to Alexandria, taking 2-7 days.  After reaching Alexandria, grain ships were compelled by unfavorable winds to return by the coast of Syria and Asia Minor.  Warships were better suited to coastal voyages, while merchantmen prefer the open seas.  Paul’s journey to Rome is the best-known voyage of antiquity.  His ship spent each night ashore; ships avoided sailing at night because of inadequate lighthouses.

SHISHAK (שישק)  An Egyptian pharaoh (940-915 B.C.), founder of the 22^nd Dynasty, invader of Palestine, and plunderer of Jerusalem.  When Solomon began to rule in Palestine, the central government in Egypt was weak.  A family of Libyan chieftains put forward a prince named Sheshonk (the Bible calls him Shishak).  He became strong enough to be received on equal terms by a reigning pharaoh.  Soon Shishak claimed rule of all Egypt, with his capital at Bubastis in the Delta.  He established his son as Amon’s high priest at Thebes and succeeded in winning useful feudal recognition.  He built part of the Amon temple in Karnak late in his reign.

                 Solomon married a pharaoh’s daughter.  This pharaoh later raided into Palestine, captured and burned the town of Gezer, and gave the city to his daughter.  This pharaoh may have been one of the merchant-kings of the 21^st Dynasty, however the sack of Gezer would be more like the Libyan war chieftain Shishak.  Jeroboam plotted against Solomon’s life and then had to flee to Egypt, where Shishak gave him asylum. 

     Around 920 B.C. or shortly thereafter, in the fifth year of Solomon’s successor Rehoboam, Shishak led Egyptians, Libyan scouts, and Libyan and Ethiopian mercenaries into Palestine.  Among the cities which he captured was Jerusalem.  Evidence for this Shishak raid into Palestine has been found at Megiddo in the fragment of a triumphal stela which he erected there.  On the walls of the Karnak temple he listed the towns which he “captured,” which were no further north than the Galilean foothills; there are more than 150 conquered towns listed.  About 24 identifications can be firmly made in the northern kingdom.  It is not known whether Jerusalem was listed in a section now broken off.  The relation between Shishak’s raid and the split of the Hebrew kingdom into 2 realms is not clear.  Evidence suggests that Shishak’s purpose was not to support Jeroboam but to gain political and economic power.

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SHITRAI (יﬧשט, writer)  A Sharonite who was one of the royal stewards, in charge of David’s herds that pastured in Sharon (I Chronicles 27).

SHITTAH TREE (שטה, acacia)  King James Version translation of the word, now recognized as an acacia tree.

SHITTIM (שטים, acacia)  1. A place in the Plains of Moab, either 11km or 13km east of the Jordan and almost 10km north of the Dead Sea, where the Israelites encamped before crossing the Jordan.  Abel-Shittim is the full name, while Shittim is the abbreviation used.  Balak of Moab tried to have Israel cursed here by Balaam.  The Israelites sinned with Moabite and Midianite women at Baal-peor.  A census was taken; Joshua was proclaimed Moses’ successor, and sent spies to Jericho from here.  Reuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh settled east of the Jordan.  Moses delivered his farewell address, viewed the land from nearby Mount Nebo, and died.

                  Abel-shittim has frequently been identified with Tell el-Kefrein.  It is on an isolated, cone-shaped hill standing about 32 meters above the plain. Some scholars believe that this was no more than an outpost and that Abel-shittim was located 2.4 km east of Tel el-Kefrein on Tell el-Hammam. This is an imposing hill near the base of the hills rising to the Moabite Plateau.  On the flat top of the hill are remains of a large (140 meters by 24 meters), strongly fortified Iron Age fortress (1200-900 B.C.), with walls more than a meter thick.

     2.   A place name in Joel 3, which speaks of a fountain that will “water the valley of Shittim.”  It is probably the Wadi en-Nar, the lower extension of the Kidron Valley near Jerusalem.

 SHIZA (שיזא) The father of Adina, a Reubenite leader who was a member of the company of the Mighty Men of David known as the “Thirty” (I Chronicles 11).

SHOA (שוע, cry for help, rich, opulent)  An identified people mentioned in Ezekiel 23 after the Babylonians, the Chaldeans, and Pekod, as one of many who would rise against Judah.

SHOBAB (שובב, turning away, rebellious)  1. One of the sons of Caleb by his wife Azubah (I Chronicles 2).       2.  One of the 4 sons of David by Bathsheba who were born at Jerusalem (II Samuel 5; I Chronicles 3, 14).

SHOBACH (שובך, effusion, increase)  The commander of the Aramean forces marshaled by Hadadezer, king of Zobah, in his military campaign against David.  Hadadezer placed Shobach in charge of the renewed military operation against Israel.  David inflicted such a crushing defeat upon the Aramean forces that the kingdoms lately tributary to Hadadezer became subject to David (II Samuel 10).

SHOBAI (שבי, one who takes captive)  One of the families of gatekeepers who returned from exile in Babylon.

SHOBAL (שובל, shoot of a plant) 1.  The second son of Seir, and a clan chief of the native Horite inhabitants of Edom (Gen. 36; I Chr. 1).  2.  Ancestor of a Calebite tribe settled in Kiriath-jearim (I Chr. 2, 4).

SHOBEK (שובק, forsaking)  One of the chiefs of the people signatory to the covenant of Ezra (Nehemiah 10).

SHOBI (שבי, one who takes captive)  An Ammonite prince, the son of King Nahash.  He generously supplied David with food and equipment at Mahanaim during the rebellion of Absalom.  His brother Hanun was the successor to his father’s throne.  Hanun’s bad treatment of David’s good-will envoys led to the disastrous Ammonite wars and the fall of Rabbah; it cost Hanun his throne.  Shobi appears to have been David’s nominee either as a tributary king or as a prefect (II Samuel 17).

SHOE.  See Sandals and Shoes.

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SHOHAM (שהם, onyx, sardonyx)  A Levite, descendant of Merari; son of Jazziah (I Chronicles 24).

SHOMER (ﬧשמ, keeper)  1. Mother of Jehozabad, one of the servants who assassinated Joash (II Kings 12; II Chronicles 4).  2. Ancestor and origin of the name of a clan of the tribe of Asher (I Chronicles 7).

SHOULDER (םﬤש (shek em), part of the body, part, portion; ﬤﬨף (kaw tef), side of a mountain, of the sea, of a city)  The Hebrew words have the same literal meaning as the English.  Similarly, the Hebrew shares the meaning of: bearing burdens, and is descriptive of a mountain slope.  The King James Version’s “shoulder” or shoq, of the sacrificial animal is better translated “thigh,” as in the New Revised Standard Version.

SHOVEL (יעים (yaw ‘eem), from the root meaning “to carry”; ﬨחﬧ (rah khat), winnowing fan)  1.  One of the “utensils of the altar,” mentioned in descriptions of the tabernacle.  The shovels were made of bronze and were used for cleaning the altar and for removing the fat-soaked ashes and placing them into pots (Exodus 27, 38.  2.  A broad and shallow scoop mentioned with a fork as used for winnowing (Isaiah 30).

SHOWBREAD.  See Bread of the Presence.

SHRINE    (אלהים ﬨבי (bet  eh lo heem), house of gods;ביﬨ במוﬨ  (bet  bah moath), house of heights; naoV (nah os), dwelling of a deity, cell of a temple)  A consecrated structure housing the image of a deity or other cult object.  It can be a plastered recess in the temple wall, or an entire building.

            Paul’s proclamation that the true God does not live in man-made shrines brought him into conflict with the silversmith Demetrius, who made his living by selling models of the shrine of Artemis.  (Acts 17, 19).

SHROUD (חﬧש (kho resh), wood, forest; sindwn (sin doen), fine Indian cloth, fine linen)  1. In King James English, this word means “shelter.”  It is used to translate khoresh in Ezekiel 31 (New Revised Standard Version uses “forest”).  2.  A winding sheet for the dead (Matthew 27; Mark 15; Luke 23).

SHUA (שוע, riches, wealth) 1.  A Canaanite, the father of Judah’s wife (Genesis 38; I Chronicles 2). 

2. Daughter of Heber, an Asherite (I Chronicles 7).

SHUAH (שוח, pit)  Abraham’s son by Keturah (Genesis 25; I Chronicles 1).  The name was probably connected with an Arab or Aramean tribe, that of the Shuhites, who later migrated near the land of Uz.  The land of the Shuhites is sometimes identified with the Assyrian Suhu on the Euphrates’ right bank, south of Carchemish, between the mouths of the Balikh of Khabur rivers.  An Edomitic location is also frequently suggested.

SHUAL (שועל fox) 1. A region near Ophrah, to which it is said that the first of 3 companies from the Philistine camp at Michmash went (I Sam. 13).  2. A division of the clan of Zophah of the tribe of Asher (I Chr. 7).

      

SHUHAH (שוחה (shoo kheh), pit)  A brother of Chelub in fragmentary genealogical data concerning the tribe of Judah (I Chronicle 4).

SHUHAM (שוחם (shoo kham), pit-digger) Son of Dan, ancestor of the Shumhamites.  Only a single Danite is named in the Danite genealogy here and in Genesis 46.

SHULAMMITE, THE (השולמיﬨ (ha shoo leh mite))  The name or title of a maiden.  “Shulammite” is widely regarded as the equivalent of “Shunammite.”  Sometimes the woman is identified with Abishag, the beautiful Shunammite brought to David in his old age.  The only other Shunammite specified in the Old is the wealthy woman visited by Elisha (II Kings 4).  Many scholars conceive “Shulammite” to be the feminine form of “Solomon”; the term is something like “the Solomoness.”  It would designate the bride in her honorary role of “princess,” companion to the bridegroom “king.”  Advocates of the cultic theory understand the Shulammite as consort of the Canaanite god of peace, Shalem, Shelem, of Shulman.

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SHUMATHITE (ﬨישמ, garlic)  A Calebite family in Kiriath-jearim; descended from Shobal, a son of Hur.  

SHUNEM (שונם, perhaps “two resting places”) A border town in Issachar, about 11km east of Megiddo and the Mt. Carmel ridge, and about 42 km north of Shechem associated with Saul and Elisha.  Surface explorations have shown that the site was occupied from the Middle Bronze age (2100 B. C.) through the Islamic period.

                 The town is first mentioned in the list of Syro-Palestinian towns conquered by Thut-mose III (1490-1435 B.C.).  Early in the 1300s it was destroyed by Lab’aya. Thereafter, Shunem declined in importance, and it was one of the few in the plain captured by the Israelites.  The Philistines encamped at Shunem to do battle with Saul.  Abishag, the maiden who ministered to David in his old age was a Shunammite.  During the 800s B.C., Elisha frequently stopped at Shunem; it was here that he later revived her dead son (II Kings 4).

SHUNI (שוני, quiet)  Gad’s third son; ancestral head of the “family of the Shunites” (Genesis 46; Numbers 26).

SHUPPIM (שפים, elevated place) 1.  A late, contracted form of Shephupham.

     2.      A gatekeeper stationed on the west side of Jerusalem (I Chronicles 26).  The name appears erroneously, perhaps as a result of taking the last word of the preceding verse (15).

SHUR, WILDERNESS OF (מﬢבﬧ שוﬧ  (me deh bawr  shur), desert of Shur [the wall])  A place or a region on the northeast border of Egypt, whither the Israelites went after they crossed the Red Sea.  The angel of the Lord found Hagar “by . . . the spring on the way to Shur.”  “David and his men . . . made raids . . . as far as Shur.”

                 Shur’s location was somewhere east of Egypt; it was perhaps a general designation for the Sinai wilderness east of Lake Timsah.  The “Way of Shur” is probably the ancient caravan route, which went from Hebron by way of Beer-sheba on south into Egypt.  Others claim that “Shur’ denoted the long range of white cliffs.  These cliffs were given the name Shur because at a distance they have appearance of a wall.

SHUTHELAH (לחﬨשו (shoo theh lakh))  1. The first son of Ephraim and the father of Eran (Num. 26; I Chr. 7).

2.      A Descendant of #1 above. However, the Ephraimite genealogy here is quite confused, so that this Shuthelah may be only a repetition of the above.

SHUTTLE (אﬧג (‘eh reg), texture, web)  The tool used by a weaver to shoot the thread of the wool from one side to the other (Job 7).

SIA (סיעא)  One of the temple servants who returned from the Exile (Ezra 2).

SIBBECAI (יﬤסב, confusion from the Lord)  A Zerahite of the town of Hushah who was included among David’s men known as the “Thirty.”  Sibbecai is credited with the slaying of the Philistine giant Saph (II Samuel 21).  He was the commander of the Davidic militia which served during the eighth month (I Chronicles 27).

SIBBOLETH (ﬨסבל)  Hebrew spelling of the Ephraimites’ mispronunciation of Shibboleth password (Judg. 12).

SIBMAH (שבמה)  A city of the pastoral table land east of the Jordan, given to the tribe of Reuben after the defeat of Sihon king of the Amorites.  Some would identify it with Qurn el-Kibsh, between Heshbon and Nebo, overlooking the Wadi Salmah.  This site is on a high flat-topped hill, with an area of about 283 by 95 meters having been enclosed by a great wall.

SIBRAIM (ﬧיםסב, hope, purpose) A place in the northern borderland of Canaan, between Damascus and Hamath.

SIBYLLINE ORACLES. See the entry in the New Testament Apocrypha section of the Appendix.

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SICKLE (מנל (man nawl); חﬧמש (kheh reh mash); drepanon (dreh pa non), curved blade)  An implement for reaping standing grain.  In the early periods it consisted of serrated flints inserted into a rounded wooden frame; later it was made of metal with wooden handle riveted on.

SIDDIM, VALLEY OF (ﬢיםהש עמק (‘eh mek  ha sid deem), valley of the plains; perhaps השﬢים (hasiddim) should read השﬧים (hasarrim), which would give the phrase the meaning “valley of the rulers [kings].”)   A valley at the Dead Sea’s south end.  It served as a battleground in the struggle of the 5 cities of the area (Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboiim, and Zoar) to throw off the yoke of 4 Mesopotamian kings under Chedorlaomer, king of Elam (Genesis 14).  The only suitable understanding is that the valley in question is covered by the shallow waters of the southern bay of the Dead Sea, south of the peninsula (el-Lisan) projecting from the Sea’s southeastern shore.  The area is further described as containing numerous bitumen pits which still exist under the surface of this southern bay; such pits played a part in the Genesis story mentioned above.

SIDON (ﬢוןצי (tsie don), fishery)  A Phoenician city between Tyre and Beirut.

                 Sidon, now Saida, is situated on small hill, projecting into the Mediterranean, about 40 km north of Tyre.  There was a harbor on the north side, good and well protected, and another one on the south side.  Some small islands help to keep heavy waves away.  The inhabitants of Sidon lived on agriculture, fishing, and trade, as well as the important purple industry on ancient Sidon.

                 Like Tyre and Byblos, Sidon is a very old city.  The Amarna Letters from the 1200s B.C., reveal that while Tyre remained faithful to Egypt, King Zimreda of Sidon, was an ally of King ‘Aziru, the Amorite.  Hittite, Hapiru, and “Sea Peoples” tried to dominate Sidon, but the city was able to keep a rather independent position.  Egypt was still trading with Sidon in 1100 B.C.

                 In the genealogical lists in Genesis 10 and elsewhere, Sidon is mentioned as the first-born of Canaan.  Here it is implied that Sidon was at the northern border of the territory of Canaanites.  It was never Israelite territory, but was close to the border of the tribe of Asher.  Ethba’al, the king of Tyre is called “king of the Sidonians.”  This shows that in Ahab’s time (800s B.C.), Sidon was no longer the dominating Phoenician city.  The Assyrian pressed toward the west, and both Sidon and Tyre had to pay tribute again and again.  The Assyrians also supported Sidon against its rival, Tyre.  Israel’s prophets saw both these cities as dangerous and arrogant.

                 The destruction of Sidon actually took place in 677.  It was after the death of Sargon II in 705 that King Luli of Sidon made an attempt to throw off the yoke; Sennacherib crushed the revolt in 701.  The son of Ethba’al, Abdimilkutte, also revolted, and this time Esarhaddon preferred to destroy the city and kill its king.

                 Sidon grew up again.  It was dominated by the Egyptians for a short time (609-593), but was then conquered by King Nebuchadrezzar.  It furnished ships for the navy of King Xerxes I and had them destroyed in the Battle of Salamis in 480.  The Sidonians revolted against Artaxerxes III Ochus in 351.  When faced with a great army, the Egyptian King Tennes became frightened and fled.  Its people stayed in the city when the city was burned.  More than 40,000 are said to have lost their lives. 

                 See also entry in the Old Testament Apocrypha/Influences Outside the Bible section of the Appendix.

                  In the New Testament, Sidon and Sidonians are mentioned several times (e.g. Matthew 11; Luke 4, 10; Acts 12.  Jesus himself went to Sidon (Matthew 15; Mark 7), and he preached to the people from that city (Mark 3; Luke 6).  Paul was there on his way to Rome (Acts 27).

SIEVE  (ﬤבﬧה (keh baw raw); נפה (naw faw))  Isaiah 30 refers to a day of judgment when the Lord will sift the nations “with the sieve (naphah) of destruction.  Amos 9 foresees a similar sifting with a kebarah.

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SIGN (ﬨאו (‘oat), portent, miracle; ﬨמופ (mo fet), wonder; ﬨמשא (mah sheh ‘at), rising of a flame; shmeion (seh may on))  A mark, symbol, or portent, serving to convey a particular idea or meaning.  For “sign” as a miraculous act, see Signs and Wonders.

                 Old Testament Signs—In Genesis 1 the heavenly bodies are to serve as signs—i.e. as directional, calendar, and weather indicators.  In Joel 2—“portents in the heavens and on the earth” mark the coming of the day of the Lord.  The blood on Hebrew houses is a sign to identify them.  The rainbow betokens God’s covenant with Noah and all the earth.  The altar’s covering, made from the censers of Korah and his family, is to be Israel’s permanent warning.  In Joshua 2 Rahab asks for a “sure sign” that she and her family will be spared.

                 The Passover is to be like a sign on the hand; it will recall the deliverance from Egypt.  In Deuteronomy God’s words are to be bound as a sign upon the hand, so that they will never be forgotten.  In Psalm 71 the psalmist claims to have been a portent to his contemporaries.  The omens of soothsayers are mentioned in Isaiah 44.  In Isaiah 19 an altar in Egypt is to bear witness to the Lord in an alien land.

                 New Testament (NT) Signs—An outward indication of an inner or hidden purpose, usually that of God.  In NT times it was considered reasonable to expect that God would authenticate God’s intention by means of supernatural occurrences.  In biblical times it would be a natural expectation that a true prophet should authenticate his message by showing signs.  Since there was vagueness about the Messiah’s appearing, there would also inevitably be uncertainty about the signs he would show.  It was very likely that the Pharisees would demand from Jesus a sign from heaven in order that he might authenticate himself.  Paul also speaks as if the Corinthians had every right to expect him to show the “signs of an apostle.”  The manner of Jesus’ birth is, for those who understand who he is, a sign of the divine initiative in our redemption, as also his resurrection from the dead is the sign of the divine authentication of his words and work.

                  Jesus condemned the attitude of those who demanded a sign in the heavens and refused to give a sign.  To demand a sign indicates lack of faith; the Israelites in the wilderness provoked God with their demand for signs.  Paul reminds the Corinthians “We must not put the Lord to the test, some of them did and were destroyed by serpents.”  Yet as God had given to the old Israel signs of his redemptive activity when God led God’s people forth from Egypt, across the Red Sea, and through the wilderness, so now God was giving signs, of God’s own choosing, that a mightier redemption was at hand.  Jesus regarded John the Baptist as well as himself, his own preaching and healing works as one of those “signs of the times.” 

                 Jesus performs prophetic signs, such as the great teaching sign of riding into Jerusalem upon an ass in fulfillment of Zechariah 9. But the signs Jesus was showing, the signs of God’s redemptive activity in this age, were not the signs for which disobedient Israel was looking.  It was not so much his actions as his person which Jesus regarded as being the sign of God’s redemptive activity.  This was one of the reasons why Jesus adopted the title “Son of man” as his own personal self-designation.  Ezekiel, like Jesus, regarded himself as a sign to his generation.  Jesus is sent to proclaim God’s word and to be a sign to a disobedient people.

                 Thus, Jesus refused to work miracles as signs in order to convince unbelievers.  Yet he regarded his miracles as signs to those who already had the eyes of faith.  It is especially the author of John’s gospel who develops the significance of the miracles of Jesus as signs; indeed, he never uses the word dynamis (miracles) but speaks many times of semeia (signs).

                 The person of the Son of man, as also his works (erga), are in the view of the NT writers the signs of the end of the age, or of the dawning of the Day of the Lord.  There would be wars, earthquakes, famines, and persecution of the faithful, and with all these things there would be the sign of the preaching of the gospel to all nations.  During the period before the End, the faithful must watch against temptations, and especially against false signs by which even the elect may be deceived: “Watch and pray that you may not enter into temptation (Mark 14).”  Patient endurance is the quality required for such times.

SIGNAL (ﬢמוע (mo ‘ed), appointed time; ﬨמשא (mah sheh ‘at), rising of a flame; נס (nes), standard, banner)  The terms “sign” and signal” can be used interchangeably in rendering many of these Hebrew words.  Such signs frequently conveyed some indication of the nature of the forthcoming event.

SIGNATURE ( ﬨ ו י (taw vee), my tav [mark], subscription to my pleadings) This word is taken to be the last letter of the Hebrew alphabet with the first person singular suffix.  Job 31 reflects a written legal process in which the defendant sets his signature upon a declaration of innocence, and awaits the accuser’s counter-declaration.

SIGNET (חוﬨם (kho tawm), seal)  A ring used for impressing its owner’s signature on the seals of documents and the like.  Rings used for this purpose were normally made of gold and set with precious or semi-precious stones into which the name or personal insignia was cut by a skilled engraver, although ordinary stone or pottery set in gold or bronze might be used.  The artistic ability of the signet-maker set the standard for all delicate work with jewels.  Signets were common enough to be among the gifts of gold for the tabernacle, but rare and costly enough to be named by Isaiah as signs of Israel’s luxury and affectation.

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                 The signets of men of noble or princely rank, whose signatures carried authority, had a special importance.  The giving of this ring to trusted counselor, as Pharaoh did to Joseph, was a mark of singular favor, since it conferred extraordinary powers upon the recipient.  This gives rise to the striking metaphor by which a leader of Israel may be called the signet on Yahweh’s hand.  See also Seals and Scarabs.

SIGNS AND WONDERS (See Glossary)

            Glossary

אוﬨ  (‘oath), mark, memorial, warning            נוﬧא (no raw ‘aw), as participle, fearful, 

ﬧיאהב (beh ree ‘ah), new, wonderful thing          terrible, holy, marvelous, wonderful,

גבוﬧה (geh bo raw), mighty acts                     ﬨנפלא (nee feh law oth), marvelous 
מופﬨ (mo fet), intimation, portent                        things, deeds

מעלל (ma ‘ah lawl), works, deeds                   עלילה (‘ah lee lah), work, deed, action

מעשה (ma ‘ah sheh), fruits of ones labors        פלא (peh leh’), miracle             

shmeia kai teraV (seh may ah  kie  teh ras),

        mark, proof, evidence, remarkable event,    
        miracle and portent,

     Of the approximately 35 occurrences of mopheth (wonder) in the Old Testament (OT), 18 instances are parallel to, and 9 are practically synonymous with the word ‘oth (sign).  It is first found in Deuteronomy 6 and 26, when Yahweh brought his people out of Egypt “with signs and wonders.”  In the New Testament (NT) the word teras (wonder) never occurs by itself but always as a plural form in conjunction with semeia (signs).

                 Revelation’s Character—Theologically speaking, revelation and miracle are inseparably related.  Whenever and wherever God reveals God’s self in the world, the person of faith is conscious of miracle.  The divine mystery is disclosed in happenings which evoke the response of awe, fear, and wonder.  The deeds of Yahweh disclose the holiness, greatness, and saving power of Israel’s God.  In the biblical sense, then, a miracle is an unusual, marvelous event which testifies to God’s active presence in the world.  The regularity and dependability of the natural order is the expression of God’s covenant faithfulness and steadfastness.  God is free to act as God chooses, using the elements of the natural world to accomplish his purpose.

                 One of biblical faith’s basic tenets is the providence doctrine:  God is Creator and Lord, who shapes the events of history controls the powers of nature.  The person of faith is alert for signs in the everyday world which indicate God’s real presence.  Within the biblical circle of faith the question is not whether the miracle happened according to a particular description but whether God was present.  In a general sense, everything is miraculous to the person of faith insofar as it is touched by the hand of God. All of nature glorifies God.

                 In the OT the primary word for “wonder” is mophet, which has its counterpart in the NT teras.  The term is close in meaning to the Hebrew ‘oth and the Greek semeion.  Ordinary and insignificant things, a casual remark, an untimely death, a turn of events, or the return of war-scarred land to normal, may become extraordinary and significant if the light of divine revelation shines upon and transfigures them.  To the Egyptians, the crossing of the Red Sea was probably a freakish border incident; but to the Israelites the event disclosed the active presence of God.  The Crucifixion and the Resurrection were a scandal to the Jew and foolishness to the Greek, while to the church it was the sign of God’s wisdom and power.

                 In a broad sense, the history of God’s action is miraculous from first to last.  There were, however decisive times in God’s dealings with his people.  The Exodus is portrayed as a time of many miracles; the rise of the prophets was marked by new miracles.  And above all, the NT affirms that the inauguration of the New Age was accompanied by signs and wonders.

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            Miracles as Sign-events—The frequent association of biblical words for “wonder” with “signs” suggests that, not only do they witness to the wonderful character of God’s actions, but they also confirm the word of God.  People cannot only hear God’s word, but can also see it in action.  A sign makes an impact upon the senses, especially the sense of sight.  A sign is characterized by visibility or historical concreteness.  The very existence of Israel as a people, emancipated to serve Yahweh, will be historical confirmation of the commission.  Yahweh’s word is confirmed by visible signs which accredit Moses as his agent.  Gideon asks for a sign which will show him that it is actually Yahweh who is speaking and receives a sign in the form of the fire which consumes his offering.  Samuel says to Saul that Saul has been chosen to deliver Israel from its enemies (e.g. “When these signs meet you, do whatever your hand finds to do . . .”).

                 These passages suggest that a sign often has a predictive character, pointing to what Yahweh is about to do in confirmation of Yahweh’s word.  An important illustration is the Immanuel sign related in Isaiah 7.  Isaiah delivered to King Ahaz Yahweh’s word that the Syro-Israelite alliance would not stand.  The sign which was predicted, despite the king’s refusal to ask is found in Isaiah 9.  The sign of Immanuel was not associated with the manner of the child’s conception, but rather with his imminent birth, his symbolic or significant name, and the meaning of the years of his childhood.  Also, this demonstration may take the form of the prophet himself, who together with his sign-children, withdraws into the prophetic community to wait for Yahweh in hope.  Promises concerning the New Age are linked with predictions of signs which will take place.  The NT, too, affirms that the end of the present will be heralded by signs and wonders.

                 The critical questions which arise out of specific miracles should not obscure the fact that they have their setting within the coming of God’s kingdom.  The gospel narrators regard Jesus’ miracles as messianic acts, “mighty works” (dynameis), which disclosed both God’s action for humankind’s salvation and Jesus’ identity as God’s agent.  His exorcisms were signs that Satan’s dominion was being broken and that God’s kingdom was coming.  His nature miracles portray the divine sovereignty’s majesty and power.

                 Ambiguity of Signs and Wonders—Implicit in the foregoing discussion is their ambiguous character.  While a sign is given to confirm the divine word, it does not in itself have the power to convince beyond a shadow of doubt.  Various signs which Moses is reported to have performed in Egypt should have left no doubt, but tradition testifies that their value was weakened by the ability of Egyptian magicians to perform similar feats, by the hardheartedness of the pharaoh, and by the Israelites’ blind incapacity to see proof of Yahweh’s sovereignty in history.  Similarly in the NT, Jesus’ signs and wonders did not lead irresistibly to faith.  According to John’s Gospel, his signs, being misunderstood aroused the hostility which led to his death.

                 The ambiguous character of miracles is discussed in a Deuteronomic law (Deuteronomy 13), namely that if a prophet or dreamer gives a sign or wonder, so that his words seduce Israel into the service of other gods, then he should not be heeded; in this way Yahweh tests the loyalty of his people.  Thus a sign is not in itself evidence of Yahweh’s presence.  It is significant only when seen in the context of Yahweh’s saving history.  In fact, the love of the miraculous may be a substitute for faith.

                 The reluctance of the NT to stress the spectacular miracles is suggested by the fact that terasa is always combined with semeia.  The seeking after a “sign from Heaven” could be a substitute for seeking God.  Jesus’ mighty works, instead of evoking repentance and faith, met with hardness of heart.  Moreover, it is acknowledged in the NT that events which others regard as miraculous are not, for they do not disclose God’s purpose.  It is said that even Satan and his helpers are able to work miracles.  Although refusing to give his generation an unambiguous sign, Jesus’ role involved the performance of the signs and wonders of the kingdom.  Above all Jesus himself was the sign of the kingdom.  In the faith of the church God’s mightiest act, in the light of which all other signs and wonders of Jesus’ are understood, is the resurrection.

SIHON (סיחון (sih khon), sweeping away)  Amorite king of Heshbon, a city east of the north end of the Dead Sea;  Numbers 21 provides the primary information about Sihon.  Deuteronomy associates him with Og of Bashan, both of whom Israel defeated in order to possess the entire region east of the Jordan.

                 Sihon is remembered by Israel because of opposition to the passage of Israelite tribes through his territory toward Canaan.  The recollection of an Israelite victory in this area undoubtedly rests upon historical memory, evidenced by a few lines in Numbers 21:27-30.  The lines imply the destruction of Heshbon, Sihon’s city and center of power.  The extent of Sihon’s power was certainly more circumscribed than Deuteronomy implies.  Sihon probably controlled an area surrounding Heshbon, whose origins probably go back to the 1200s B.C.

                 Old Testament references which imply a larger domain most likely reflect the history of subsequent Israelite occupation of the Dead Sea’s eastern region.  Reuben and Gad figure in the regional history, with Gad’s role the more enduring.  Full occupation of Heshbon’s southern territory was not achieved before David’s defeat of Moab, and that was lost by the following century as indicated by the Moabite King Mesha’s victory.

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SILAS (SilaV)  A leading man of the Jerusalem church; also called a prophet, and associated with Paul and Peter in apostolic missions.  There is little doubt that Silas and Silvanus are one and the same.  The former appears in Acts and the latter in the letters. Silvanus’ imprisonment with Paul may be inferred from I Thessalonians 2.

                 Silas first comes into notice in the Jerusalem church as Judas Barsabbas’ companion, chosen to bear the findings of the Jerusalem conference to Antioch.  After “exhorting” the church at Antioch, they returned to Jerusalem.  Silas was soon back in Antioch and was chosen by Paul to go with him on the Asia and Macedonian mission in place of Barnabas.  He was in prison with Paul at Philippi and probably suffered as a Roman citizen as did Paul; he was left at Beroa.  Silas was reunited with Paul and Timothy in Corinth. 

    Paul’s mention of Silas in later writing only confirms the association in Corinth and throws no light on further relations.  The First Letter of Peter mentions Silvanus in terms suggesting that he was a secretary for the apostle.  After he was replaced in Paul’s company, he went to the areas of Pontus and Cappadocia, the northern country with which I Peter is associated. 

    Greek influences on Silas’ character may be the reason for his selection as Barnabas’ successor, who had inclined toward the Judaistic attitude toward Gentiles.  The church probably thought they would make a balanced team.  Paul’s letter to the Thessalonians, written from Corinth, contains salutations from “Paul, Silvanus, and Timothy.”  The use of “we” may indicate that Silvanus and Timothy were co-author of the main sections of the letters.  We might want to assign the apocalyptic passages to Silas or Timothy, rather than Paul.  The literary activity of Silas which is usually pointed out is his work on I Peter.  Silvanus was either a penman who merely took dictation or a scribe who assumed much responsibility for actual arrangement and content of the letter.  It is altogether possible that Silas had the cultural qualification to compose such writing.

SILK (משי (meh she); shrikon (se ree kon))  Silkworm culture originated in China, whence it spread through Korea to Japan and India.  The last had a silk industry after 1000 B.C.  In Ezekiel’s oracle silk is the clothing of the maiden Jerusalem. Silk was a prized article of trade at Rome in the time of the author of Revelation.

SILLA  (סלא, elevation, way)  Possibly a quarter or suburb of Jerusalem; mentioned in connection with the house of Millo, in which Joash, king of Judah was murdered (II Kings 12).

SILOAM  (Silwam)  A pool in Jerusalem mentioned in connection with the healing by Jesus of a man born blind, located in the valley between the two hills Jerusalem was built on, near the southwest tip of the eastern hill.  The complex relation between the aqueduct and the pool are considered here in their historical development and from the point of view of the study of place-names.

                 Both the aqueduct and the pool belong to a system of canals and reservoirs in communication with the spring of Gihon, located nearly 80 meters east of the ancient ramparts of David’s city, on the eastern hill of Jerusalem, and 380 meters north-northeast of the Pool of Shelah, just off the southern tip of the City of David’s wall.  During the early phase of the monarchy, the water was collected at the outlet of the spring in a reservoir originally dug out of the rock.  This reservoir most likely represents the “Upper Pool,” and the “artificial pool.”  Some scholars distinguish the Upper Pool from the Old Pool.

                 Two irrigation channels were fed from the reservoir by the spring.  The one has been followed for a short distance only.  Several sections of a more recent aqueduct have been thoroughly explored.  It ran more or less straight for nearly 400 meters to the Lower Pool, making only slight allowances for the variations of the hill’s irregular slope.  It was built with a very slight slope, to make possible an extensive watering of terraces.  Some sections of the aqueduct were covered with slabs; some were underground through rock formations.  The irrigation was effected by means of lateral openings in the east wall of the canal.  It drained at first into a pool called the Pool of Shelah, presumably the same as the King’s Pool.

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                 When the armies of Sennacherib marched into Palestine, Hezekiah stopped all the springs around 701 B.C.; there is ample archaeological evidence of a systematic closing of the surface access of the reservoir and the closing of the aqueduct.  Hezekiah’s tunnel is the S-shaped underground aqueduct cleared in 1910, and still in use.  Tunnels were begun at the Spring of Gihon and the Pool of Siloam and dug towards each other.  The upper tunnel was the shorter of the two.  It was started heading west towards the city walls, 86 meters away and bearing slightly to the south near the wall.  From the wall it went southeast for about 79 meters, curving slightly to the south.  There are two more short sections of this tunnel, one to the southwest for 32 meters, and one sharply to the southeast for 16 meters to where the two tunnels met.

                 The lower tunnel, begun at the Pool of Siloam below the southwest tip of the David’s City, first curved to the north and east for about 41 meters until it reached the City of David’s west wall.  It continued to curve to slightly south of east under the David’s City for about 97 meters until it reached the east wall of David’s City.  It continued in this direction for a short ways east of the wall, before it curved to the northeast for about 56 meters.  It shifted to a little west of north, and ran more or less straight for 81 meters.  It shifted again to a little east of north and ran straight for 32 meters.  Here it took a sharp turn to the northwest for 6 meters to meet the upper tunnel.  The upper tunnel was 214 meters long; the lower tunnel was 316 meters long. 

                 The evidence for starting at both ends and meeting somewhere in between is in the tunnel itself and also from an inscription on the tunnel wall.  The Inscription of Siloam refers anonymously to the pool into which the tunnel drained.  It is most likely identical with the “reservoir between the two walls.”  All one dare say is that Isaiah’s “two walls” were part of Hezekiah’s program of fortification.  The first specific mention of the Pool of Siloam is in John 9.  In the 400s A.D., the pool was surrounded by a church with porticoes and integrated in an architectural ensemble.  Later on, a mosque was established over the ruins of the church.  As for the Lower Pool of Isaiah 22, it is most certainly identical with the Pool of Shelah.  It is not unlikely that it was remodeled to accommodate the surplus water discharged from the pool of Siloam.

SILVER  (ﬤסף (kaw saf), pale, white; argupion (ar gih pee on), made of silver, money)  Silver was known in the Near East as early as gold and copper.  It normally surpassed in value all other metals until the Persian period (500 B.C.), when the amount of silver on the market reversed the silver-gold ratio.  Egypt lacked native supplies of silver.  Between 1580 and 1350 B.C., she obtained refined silver; silver jewelry was their most expensive.  In Palestine the few silver objects found in excavations suggests that from around 1400 B.C. silver was scarce except for Solomon’s times.  Silver is regularly given priority over gold in the OT; only in Chronicles and Daniel is this order reversed.  Phoenicia and Arabia served as Israel’s regional distributors for silver.

                 Numerous OT references reveal the use of silver as: a standard of wealth (Gen. 13, 24; Ex. 25; Num. 22; Deut. 7; Zech. 6); payment of obligation in weight of metal (Gen. 20, 23, 37, 45; Ex. 21; Lev. 27; II Sam. 24; Job 28; Is. 7, 49); jewelry (Gen. 24; Ex. 3, 11, 12; Song of Songs [Solomon] 1; idol making (Ex. 20; Deut. 29; Ps. 115, 135; Is. 2, 30, 31, 40; Dan. 2, 5, 11; connected with the Tabernacle (Ex. 26, 27, 36; Num. 7, 10;  in connected with the Jerusalem temple (I Kings 7; I Chron. 28; Ezra 8); and raw material (Ex. 31; I Kings 15).

                 The OT knows of mining and refining silver (Job 28; Zechariah 13; Malachi 3; and Ezekiel 22).  Figuratively, refining silver is used for trying a person’s heart (Psalm 66; Isaiah 48); silver itself is used for bright color and the purity of God’s word, (Psalm 68, 12) and as great abundance (Job 3, 22, 27; Isaiah 60). It is of lower value than Wisdom (Job 28; Proverbs 3, 8, 10, 16, 22, 25).

                 In the New Testament silver is sometimes mentioned derisively (Matthew 10; James 5; I Peter 1), as wealth generally (Acts 20; I Corinthians 3; Revelation 18), as coins (Matthew 22, 26, 27), for tax payments (Matthew 17), and in connection with idol-making (Acts 17, 19; Revelation 9).

SILVERSMITH (ףﬧצ (tsaw raf), refiner, goldsmith; argurokopoV (ar gih ro ko pos), forger of silver)  One who works with silver, both refining the ore and forming the finished product.  The silversmith made musical instruments, decorations, tabernacle and templeware, and idols.  The lone New Testament passage involves the dispute of the silversmiths’ guild with Paul, because he preached the end of silver’s use in making idols.

SIMEON (שמעון, hearing, accepting; Sumewn)  1.  The second son of Jacob by Leah, and the source of the name of the tribe of Simeon. 

     Genesis 34 of the Old Testament (OT) indicates that the tribe of Simeon once settled in central Palestine but could not hold out against the superior strength of the Canaanites.  Simeon belonged to the Leah group, together with Levi, the first wave of Israelite occupiers, focusing on the Palestinian highland in the middle, between Issachar, Zebulun, and Asher in the north, and Judah, Reuben, and Gad in the south. 

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     Like other tribes, Simeon and Levi were severely decimated in the course of the occupation.  They withdrew in the direction of the southern steppe from which they had started out.  The little band of Simeon succeeded in establishing themselves on the most southerly border of the cultivated land.  The territory of an ancient Canaanite city-state was sufficient to receive their remnant. 

     The Song of Deborah does not mention them; in the Blessing of Moses a Simeon passage is missing, because the tribe had become too unimportant after the bloodletting.  Simeon is missing completely from the system of boundary descriptions which originated in the period before the monarchy.  In the later literature Simeon appears almost exclusively in connection with statistics.  Simeon leads the group of those who pronounce the blessing on Mount Gerizim.  In the lists of Chronicles, Simeon always ranks second.  In the New Testament’s book of Revelation the tribe of Simeon appears in the 7^th place on the list of the sealed.

     2.  A righteous and devout man, living in Jerusalem at the time of Jesus’, “Looking for the consolation of Israel.”  He had been promised that he should not die before he had seen “the Lord’s Christ.”  Simeon, inspired by the Holy Spirit, went into the temple, took the child up in his arms, and blessed God, saying:
   Master, now you are dismissing your servant in peace, according to your 

 word; for my eyes have seen your salvation, which you have prepared 
 in the presence of all people, a light for revelation to the Gentiles and for 
 glory to your people Israel (Luke 2:29-32, NRSV).

                 This blessing, called the Nunc Dimittis is used in the daily evening prayers of Western Christendom since since the 300s.  The fullness of OT allusions in this brief canticle shows the central position which messianic expectations occupied in Simeon’s faith.

     3.      An ancestor of Jesus, in Lukan genealogy (Luke 3).

           4.  Peter’s original Hebrew name is spelled Simon, but in Acts 15 and the first verse of II Peter it occurs as Simeon.    

SIMON (שמעון, a hearing, accepting) 1. The father of Judas Iscariot (John 6 & 13). 
           2. Son of Jonah, and brother of Andrew; Jesus named him “Peter” (See Peter). 
           3. Jesus’ brother (Mark 6; Matthew 13) thought by some to be identical with the Simeon son of Clopas. 
           4. Simon the Zealot. Luke 6 has correctly translated the Aramaic word. Simon was probably thus designated because he formerly had identified himself with fanatical opponents of Roman rule.
           5. The Pharisee in whose house Jesus was anointed by a sinful woman. He was friendly to Jesus but somewhat casual, as indicated by his failure to extend courtesies customarily accorded guests (Luke 7).
            6. A leper at a dinner in whose home at Bethany Jesus was anointed by Mary (Mark 14).
            7. Simon of Cyrene, capital city of the North African district of Cyrenaica, who was impressed into service carrying Jesus’ cross to the execution place. He is said in Mark 15 to be Rufus and Alexander’s father.
            8. The tanner of Joppa in whose house by the seaside Peter stayed “for many days.” Tanning and tanners were unclean, because of handling dead bodies. Tanners, though avoided by the Pharisees, were accepted readily into the Christian fellowship.                 
           9. See Simon Magus.  

SIMON MAGUS (Simon o magoV, Simon the magus) Samaritan magician referred to in Acts and known in later legend. Among the disciples driven out of Jerusalem by the persecution following Stephen’s death was Philip, the deacon (Acts 6), who went to a Samaritan village. There Philip preached and made many converts, including Simon the magician. Simon was amazed by the miracles of healing which Philip performed.   
             Peter and John went to investigate, and they laid their hands on the new converts and imparted to them the Holy Spirit. Simon offered to buy the power from Peter and John, but Peter bitterly denounced him. Later generation of Christians regarded Simon Magus as an impostor who became a Christian only from base motives. But Simon repented, so he was presumably still a Christian. We have to assume, not only that Simon became a Christian, but that he remained one. This narrative has numerous obscurities regarding Simon’s powers and motives, and the apostles’ monopoly on imparting the Holy Spirit. They indicate that the story is more complicated than it appears to be on the surface.

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             The participle mageyon and the phrase tais magiais (works of a magus) indicate that Simon was magus by profession. While Magi are mentioned only 3 times in the New Testament, the word appears frequently in the Old Testament’s primary Greek translation; originally the Magi were a Median shaman caste. But in the Mediterranean world the term had lost its national connotation and indicated any professional doing astrology, necromancy, exorcism, etc. They were held in respect by such eminent men as Sergius Paulus and Felix.      
             For about 300 years Simon Magus gripped the imagination of early Christians. The early church father Justin says that Simon, who was worshiped by nearly all Samaritans as the first god, carried about with him a woman named Helena. She was the first idea and person generated by the “god” Simon; supposedly the Romans also worshiped Simon, but that may not be true. Eusebius says Simon’s followers worshiped him and Helena with pictures, images, idols, incense sacrifices, and libations. 
             Irenaeus adds that Simon through Helena conceived in his mind the lower angels, archangel, and powers by whom the world was formed. Helena was the lost sheep of the gospels, and Simon came down to redeem her. He had assumed the form of the lower powers in order to disguise himself. The lower powers in the form of the world, the flesh, and the scriptures, are rejected by all who trust in Simon and Helena, who are saved by grace, free, and can do as they please. Irenaeus even ascribes a trinity to Simonians: Simon appeared to the Jews as the Son; to the Samaritans as the Father; but to others as the Holy Spirit.
             In early Christianity writing done under the name of a famous early Christian, Simon acquires virtually all the features of the Antichrist. He is the “man of sin,” the incarnation of Satan, who is determined to uproot the true faith. Simon Peter meets Simon Magus on every battlefield; Peter always triumphs, and Simon is either slain or is a suicide.    
             There is so much of symbol and allegory and Gnostic speculation in the Simonians legends that some have denied that Simon ever existed. There is a basis in the confusion of the stories for different views. It is probable, however, that Simon Magus was an actual person. No one knows what he means when he calls himself “Great.” These words were the fertile seed which germinated, and developed into the luxuriant crop of legends of the later centuries. They tell more about the times when they were written than about Simon Magus himself. Simon Magus literature was produced by a time in which the Christian faith was interested primarily in signs, wonders, and miraculous displays.    

SIMPLICITY  (ﬨמה (too mah), integrity, sincerity, innocence; ﬨיפ (feh tie), folly; aplothV (ap lo tes), sincerity, purity of mind)  A quality of being plain, uncompounded, and free from adornment or duplicity.  The most prominent motifs related to simplicity in the Bible are: plain openness, freedom from sophistication or duplicity; moral uprightness and integrity of heart; purity and loyalty in devotion to God; and liberality which springs from simple goodness and willingness to give of the self.

                 In the Old Testament the dominant conceptions related to simplicity are innocence, integrity, uprightness, and simplicity.  An instructive passage for the various meanings related to the idea of simplicity is found in the Apocrypha.  Here we find the description of a simple man is that of a responsible, frugal, pious, and generous person who walks in uprightness of heart and is never a busybody or malicious against neighbors.

                 In the New Testament, slaves are told to be obedient to their masters “in singleness of heart, as to Christ.”  The Greek word aplotes also suggests a quality of wholeheartedness, willingness to give of the self without reservation.  In Matthew 6’s metaphor about the eye, aplous means “sound” (i.e. whole).  The soundness of vision here probably symbolizes clarity and purity of moral perception which is free from duplicity, envy, etc.  

SIN, SINNERS   

           Glossary:  Hebrew                                         Glossary: Greek

           אשם (aw sham), become guilty                  adikia (ah dih keah), injustice,
                                                                                    lie, deceitfulness
           בליעל (beh lay ‘al), wickedness                  amartia (am ar teah), error, offence
           חטא(kheh tah/ khah taw), failure/ sinner    anomia (an oh meah), lawlessness
           מﬧﬢ (maw rad), rebel                                 asebeia (as eb ee ah), to be impious
           מﬧה (maw raw), be disobedient                 enocoV (en okh os), held liable for

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           עבﬧ(‘aw bar), pass over (i.e.                       kakia  (kah keah), malice,
                 transgress)                                                  wickedness
           עון (‘aw vone), iniquity, punishment          ofeilhma (oh fie leh ma),
                 for sin                                                         delinquency, offence, fault
           עמל (‘aw mawl), mischief                           parabasiV (par ah bah sees), deviation,
           פשע (paw shah), rebel                                       violation
           ﬧעע (raw ‘ah), be evil                                 parakoh  (par ah ko heh), disobedience
           ﬧשע (raw shaw), wicked                            paraptwma (par ap toe ma), stumbling,     
           שגג (shaw gawg), commit an error                   trespass
           שנה (shaw gaw), sin through ignorance    ponhria (po neh reah), wickedness, malignity

                 These lists do not exhaust the vocabulary in the Bible.  Various other terms are employed to show that sin is obstinacy, pride, backsliding, folly, deceit, and uncleanness. When employed in poetic parallelism, the terms for “sin” often tend to lose their distinctive meanings.  The meaning of Greek words may be distinguished 4 ways.  First, as a sociological-ethical term, it indicates someone of notoriously bad morals.  Second, the Pharisees use it is a word of condemnation for any who do not follow their ritual.  Third, it designates the Gentiles.  Fourth, in a more spiritual sense it applies to people outside of Christ under God’s condemnation. 

     The Bible, unlike many modern religionists who seek to find excuses for sin, had a keen awareness of its heinousness, culpability, and tragedy.  They looked upon it as a dreadful alienation from God.  There are few chapters which do not contain some reference to what sin is or does.  Humankind find themselves in sin and suffer its painful effects; God graciously offers salvation from it. 

     As might be expected, the biblical literature shows a marked development in its understanding of sin.  An unavoidable aspect of every religion has always been recognizing the alienation between human and the divine.  There is reason to believe that the Hebrews possessed early at least the beginnings of a genuine awareness of the theological meaning of sin, which then developed slowly.  As it developed, their recognition sin’s seriousness increased.  The prophets preached the reality of the nation’s sin.  The New Testament (NT) put sin in an even darker light as it demonstrated God’s amazing way of dealing with it in Christ.

     Old Testament (OT) Sin: Nature, Origin, and Development—The predominant conception of the nature of sin in the Bible is that of personal alienation from God.  Sin in human thought tends to be of three basic conceptions: moral; physical; or natural.  There really can be no doubt of the intensely personal conception of sin in the OT.  This is in fact, one of the most impressive triumphs of biblical religion.

     It is possible, however, to trace the influence of other modes of thought in the OT, where we often find God’s powerful influence in nature developing into moralizing or into a highly personal conception, or the personal conception degenerate into moralizing.  The nature religions of the ancient Near East viewed sin as a violation of the express will of the gods, any impingement, known or unknown, upon the irrational prerogatives of the supernatural.  Survival of taboo-consciousness is clearly present in certain early elements in the OT.  It is difficult to explain the prohibition against the eating of blood as arising from any other source.  It also lies behind the rules for ritual purification, blessings, curses, oaths, etc.  Similar is the idea of the “devoted thing,” the spoils of a holy war which were claimed exclusively for Yahweh.

     Generally, OT sin appears on a high moral and spiritual level.  Most laws show a strong awareness of ethical right and wrong.  It was as they came to understand what was wrong in relation to Yahweh’s will that the Israelite understood what was wrong in relation to their neighbors.  It was chiefly the great prophets who taught Israel that sin is something spiritual, that it touches upon one’s personal standing with God.  The sinner becomes particularly aware of a deep sinfulness in the holy God’s awesome presence.  Sin is, above all, “revolt,” as Adam’s fall makes abundantly clear.  Thus the “moral good” standard was Yahweh’s revealed will, and sin against this was transgression against the covenant which God had made with God’s people.

     There is a third basic conception of sin, the moralistic.  Always the danger of descending into moralism was present with Israel.  In Proverbs a tendency toward an external, moralistic conception appears, but this came to fullest development in later Jewish legalism.  The whole duty of humankind was circumscribed by the Torah, and accordingly the entire definition of sin.  The rationale of obeying the little understood details of the Torah was the assurance that they authentically represented the divine will.

     The OT contains surprisingly little reflection on the origin of sin.  The story of Adam’s fall unmistakably intends to explain how sin began, even though the terminology of sin is lacking.  The rest of the OT shows little acquaintance with the tradition.  In Genesis 6, an ancient myth of the sons of God is presented as evidence for impetus to the ongoing corruption of humanity resulting from the sin in the Garden.

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     Another explanation for sin’s origin was that of demonic influence.  However, demonology plays a unimportant role in the OT.  Satan is mentioned, but not as a proper name.  The OT writers were more concerned to trace sin’s source “existentially” in human life than to indulge in speculations on history and the divine.  Such passages as Job 14, 15; and Psalm 51, say only that humans are sinful from their conception.

     According to Hebrew writers, sin comes from the humans’ corrupt heart. Here, at the center of one’s being, the  sinner is at odds with the Creator.  “The Lord saw that  . . .  every  imagination of the  thoughts of his heart was only evil continually.”  The heart is the will’s seat, rather than the intellect’s seat, and it is human will that refuses to obey, even though God showed humans the way, and made covenant with them.

     Thus sin’s essence lies, not in isolated acts of transgression, but in the depth of a human’s being.  The heart, has become so warped through estrangement from God that it henceforth gives rise to all sorts of evil.  Sin begets greater sin; individual sin involves everyone associated with each one.  Nowhere does sin’s tragic course appear more plainly than in Genesis 2.  Not only are the immediate consequences of Eve and Adam’s disobedience depicted, but the writer also shows how this led to enmity and fratricide.  Humankind’s wickedness became so great that it has to be destroyed by flood.  Noah’s descendants returned to folly, using their developing skills of civilization to erect a tower that was to be the symbol of their prideful defiance of God.

     The pre-exilic history of Israel provided another vivid example of the tragic course of sin.  Neither Yahweh’s favor nor his chastisement could turn the people from their sins.  Two of the most notorious examples of hardened sinners were Pharaoh and Saul.  Even though they temporarily showed outward signs of repentance, their hearts at last became completely hardened. 

     Old Testament (OT) Sin: Extent, Responsibility, and Personal Awareness—Because sin is rooted in the heart, all of human life is liable to its taint.  No area of activity is exempt from it.  Sin resides even in the intentions and desires.  There are sins of which no one else is aware or of which the sinner himself is unconscious.  “There is none that does good. . . They have all gone astray, they are all alike perverse. . . (Psalm 14: 1, 3) and “Surely there is not a righteous man on earth who does good and never sins (Ecclesiastes 7).”  Others references to the universality of human sinfulness include: I Kings 8; II Chronicles 6; Psalm 143; and Isaiah 9.  In Job 4, 14, and 15 it is closely allied with creatureliness. 

     As the Hebrew mind held to the solidarity of the race, it also believed in the essential unity of the life and being of the individual.  A person’s whole being and activity are affected by sin.  Thus the OT contains the elements of a doctrine of original sin.  It does not theorize about the process by which humanity has become corrupt; all it knows, through painful experience, is that all of humankind since Adam has been sinful.

     Inasmuch as humans can’t escape involvement in sin, it might seem logical to conclude that one ought not to be held responsible.  But since sin is rooted in the heart, it is basically an act of perverted freedom, and humans are always responsible.  God offers grace as a remedy for sin and urges sinners to repent and forsake evil.  “I have no pleasure in the death of the wicked, but that the wicked turn from their ways and live.”  God holds all to account for their wrongdoing, even the Gentiles (Genesis 19; Ezekiel 16; Leviticus 18, and Amos 1, and 2).  Their sin is all the greater because they sin against God’s covenant and better knowledge.  

     An important consideration is the difference between corporate and individual responsibility for sin.  In its early development Israel was very much influenced by a dynamistic concept of corporate guilt.  Not only was the guilty man put to death, but his goods, his flocks, and his family perished with him (Josh. 7).  In official Yahwism this concept played an important role.  In the Great Covenant formulations, however, its scope was restricted “to the 3^rd and 4^th generations.”  Deut. 24 states:  “Fathers shall not be put to death for the children, nor shall the children be put to death for the fathers; every one shall be put to death for their own sin.”

     The corporate involvement of sin deeply impressed itself upon the people, however.  The prophets proclaimed that it was not a few wicked individuals, but the whole nation, that was laden with sin (Isaiah 1).  Jeremiah 31 and Ezekiel 18 and 33 protested against this, but they did not deny corporate involvement in sin.  Their purpose was to accentuate individual responsibility, which was in danger of becoming submerged in a consciousness of overpowering national calamity.

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     It has been mentioned that guilt for sin came to be felt more personally as Israel’s theological understanding of the real nature of sin developed.  For those who repented of breaking an irrational taboo, it became more panic than godly sorrow.  Cain was more afraid of its evil results for himself than sorrowful for his crime.  On the other hand, a true spiritual sense of guilt follows from the knowledge that sin is a personal affront against a holy and righteous God.  “While I kept silence, my body wasted away . .          .  Day and night your hand was heavy upon me; my strength was dried up as by the heat of summer.  I acknowledged my sin to you . . . and you forgave the guilt of my sin (Ps. 32: 3-5).”  This intense awareness of guilt is mainly expressed in texts dating from late periods of Israel’s religious development.  Israel’s most saintly men, who live very intimately with God, lay their sin before God whom it concerns and who has the only remedy for it.

                 It is significant that many of the most notable exemplars of piety are said explicitly to have committed sin:  Noah (Genesis 9); Abraham (Genesis 12); Moses (Numbers 20); David (II Samuel 11); Elijah (I Kings 19); Isaiah (Ch. 6); Jeremiah (Ch. 15).  Elsewhere they are seen as blameless.  In Psalms 18, 26, 41, writers claim complete purity and innocence.  In the light of the universal sinfulness of humanity, which is the dominant teaching of the OT, how are such expressions to be understood? 

                 It should be made clear that the terms involved in these claims of innocence are generally based on external standards.  To be described as “righteous,” one needs to conform, at least outwardly, to the commonly accepted standard of what is right.  On this basis all truly God-fearing people would qualify as righteous.  A wicked person adopts sin as a way of life; their whole existence is under a cloud of guilt.  On the other hand, a righteous person may fall into sin, but because their basic attitude is hatred toward sin, one is not charged as being “guilty” or “wicked.”  This distinction probably accounts for such claims of innocence as are found in Psalm 18.  They ignore the more important question of whether one can really be right with God even though one may observe only the outward norms of pious conduct.  His inquisitors accuse Job of all kinds of sin, while he stubbornly maintains his “righteousness.”  Job abandons the norms of an easy moralism and reaches out into a dark unknown, when he asks the question:  “How can one be just before God?”  Job was looking for the wonder of God granting righteousness even in the midst of sin, which only the NT would make plain.

                 Old Testament (OT) Sin: Penalty and Remedy—Since Yahweh holds all accountable to God for their sin, it is also God who brings their penalty upon them.  God announces the penalty of each nation’s sin.  Judah and Israel are also under indictment for their transgressions. 

     The prophets continually declare Yahweh’s verdict.  In apocalyptic passages the imagery of Yahweh’s judgment is set forth in lurid detail (Isaiah 24, 63, 66, Joel 3).  Although court language is employed, it is plain that the penalty’s effects, which results from transgressions, go on inside of the guilty.  For the Hebrew mind sin included the guilt from it and its painful results.  Thus it is said that God judges a guilty person by bringing their conduct upon their own head.  Sin sets in motion a series of consequences.  Since this necessary involvement of act and consequence belongs to the essential nature of moral creation, it is indeed the judgment of God.  Theologically speaking, the sinner lives alienated from God, while God has created the sinner to live in harmony with God.  It follows then that his life apart from God will be filled with pain and misery.

     It is for this reason that leading terms for “sin” include its penalty, particularly kheta (failure) and ‘avon (punishment).  Thus suffering comes to be interpreted as sin’s penalty, and great suffering as great wickedness’ penalty.  For Job’s antagonists, all suffering is sin’s penalty.  Nowhere else in the OT are the wicked’s sorrows, which are sin’s penalties, set out more luridly than in the speeches of Job’s accusers.   Most Hebrew thinkers knew that the righteous did not always have happiness, that the wicked did not always suffer.  The ultimate penalty for sin is death; human mortality is made into a punishment for sin.  When the death penalty is declared upon the stubbornly wicked, this may be understood as a spiritual death as well as a physical one.

     A discussion of sin, with all its woeful diagnosis, would not be complete without considering the remedy provided for it.  At any rate, the OT is not entirely clear about sin’s ultimate cure.  The Hebrew sinner sought relief in two directions. He sought atonement through the cultic rituals, and later, in Jewish legalism.  But deeply spiritual people could find no ultimate relief in these devices.  Thus the highest insight of OT faith is that “deliverance belongs to the Lord.”  “If you, O Lord, should mark iniquities, Lord who could stand?  But there is forgiveness with you, so that you may be revered” (New Revised Standard Version, Psalm 130:3-4).

     (See also entry in the Old Testament Apocrypha/Influences Outside the Bible section of the Appendix.)

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                 New Testament (NT) Sin: Nature and Standard—The presence and the problem of sin are just as much a part of the NT as of the OT, and yet one who reads it is immediately struck by an astounding difference.  All the old terms are deepened and strangely transformed.  The doctrine of sin in the NT is dominated by the assurance that Christ has come to conquer it, and to obtain salvation for us. 

                 Paul is the most profound of the NT writers in speaking about sin.  All NT writers are dominated by the assurance of Christ’s effective answer to sin.  It needs to be emphasized while saying this that Greek culture has made little essential difference.  The sources of Paul’s teaching are Hebraic, perhaps with traces of Iranian dualism.  It is important to observe that the NT radically transforms the content of many of the Greek words for “sin” in keeping with its essentially different ideology.

                 In some of the NT writings the concept of morality and the definition of sin are still very similar on those of Judaism, but the NT in general strongly opposes the legalistic and impersonal conception.  Jesus refused to observe the scruples of the Pharisees  concerning ritual  cleanliness (Mark 7).  There were lively controversies in the early church over the keeping of law, but the view eventually won out, that this was no longer the ultimate standard of morality.  Jesus made it clear that Pharisaic legalism had no place in his concept of righteousness.  Pharisees had made the law an odious thing and occasion for all kinds of externalism and pretense, creating burdens where benefit was intended.  It is important to observe that Jesus did not count the righteousness obtained by keeping the law as worthless and meaningless, but it was not sufficient.  Righteousness measured by such an external standard leads to prideful boasting.  The very righteousness of which they boasted was the cause of their condemnation before God.

                 Jesus, according to the Synoptic writers, offered no statement on the nature of sin.  He was interested primarily in sinners.  In the Sermon on the Mount he showed that all the hidden attitudes and emotions are involved in sin, just as much as the outward actions.  The true quality of the outward life is determined by and is a manifestation of the spiritual attitude within, whether for good or for ill.

                 James shares the view that the law has to be taken more seriously (inwardly) than in rabbinic Judaism.  For Paul, however, the law led to condemnation rather than to self-righteousness.  As a converted person Paul could make no compromise with legalism, even though for the scruples of weaker brethren he was willing to fulfill the outward conventions of Jewish ritual.  He does not deny that if a person could really keep the law perfectly, in spirit as well as in letter, he would be considered righteous in God’s sight.

                 It is thus in connection with the law that Paul’s most characteristic understanding of sin appears.  Generally he speaks of sin as an evil power working against the law and against the influence of God’s Spirit to drag a person into transgression.  Thus the doctrine of 2 opposing cosmic principles, which has been observed in the Qumran theology, reappears in Paul as sin versus Christ, flesh versus Spirit, and darkness versus light.  This whole world is presently in the hands of the powers of darkness, which Christ has come to destroy.

                 The Jew looked upon Gentiles as slaves of darkness and evil.  Paul agrees with this judgment, but explains how the Gentiles have perversely and rebelliously corrupted themselves in spite of the better knowledge that God gave them; he includes the Jew under the same condemnation.  Although the Gentiles knew God, “they did not honor God as God . . .  For this reason God gave them up to dishonorable passions . . . Do you suppose, O man, that when you judge those who do such things and yet do them yourself, you will escape the judgment of God?” 

    Paul shows that the Jew’s sin is even more heinous than that of the Gentiles, because while preaching to others they forget to follow their own admonition.  The real essence of sin for Gentile and Jew is turning away from God’s light in order to walk in evil ways.   Paul and John’s Gospel agree that sin is rooted in hatred toward God.  John’s literature also manifests an indebtedness to the concept of hostile world-forces mentioned earlier.  The very serious sin of apostatizing is prominently mentioned in the Letter to the Hebrews.

     New Testament Sin: Origin—To a great extent, the NT gives the OT answer to the question of sin’s origin.  James says:  “Each person is tempted when they are lured and enticed by their own desire.  Desire . . . gives birth to sin . . . [and] brings forth death.”  Paul, while admitting that passions and desires must be resisted, makes the principle of sin which lies within the heart responsible for the unruliness of these desires.  Very prominent in Paul’s study of defects of character is the concept of “the flesh,” which is the ally and vehicle of sin.  In his list of the “fruits” of the flesh, i.e. the realm of creaturely life which leads into all manner of sins, Paul makes it plain that these are not merely sins of the body but of the mind as well.

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     In Romans 7 and 8 the flesh is brought into connection with the law with sin.  The sin lurking within is aroused by law giving knowledge of wrong and works through the weakness of flesh to the doing of evil.  Sinners rebel against the law because it is spiritual and they are fleshly.  Even for Paul, there is a constant struggle going on within.  His inmost self delights in God’s law, but sin wages war with him and takes him captive:  Í can will what is right, but I cannot do it.”

     The New Testament inherits from intertestamental Judaism a belief in demonic temptation as a source of sin.  The devil is mentioned in John 8 as the originator of murder and deceit.  He is often mentioned as “the evil one,” “the tempter,” or “Satan,” and as the arch-opponent of God the seducer of humankind.  When the question of ultimate origin of sin is raised, it is evident that the NT posses a definite historical theory.  It is to Adam’s sin in Eden that humankind’s depravity is traced.   

     Paul’s teaching must, of course, be understood in the light of its context.  Adam is brought in as a foil to Christ.  He was the bringer of death, as Christ is the bringer of life.  Paul really means to make a comparison here between Adam as the symbolic representative of all his sinful descendants and Christ as the representative of all who receive righteousness from him.   “As by one person’s disobedience many were made sinners, so by one person’s obedience many will be made righteous.” 

     Paul’s meaning is that there is a necessary historical connection between Adam’s sin and the sins of his descendants.  Those sins were not like his, because his was the proto-sin which engulfed all the rest of humankind in death.  Paul is more interested in making verbal parallels than in producing strict logic.  The comparison is intended as an important distinction between the natural and the spiritual life.  The primeval sin of unbelief and idolatry, mentioned in Romans 1, does not necessarily refer to Adam’s sin.  This is not a historical account but a description of the progress of depravity in humanity generally.

     New Testament Sin:  Extent, Prevalence, and Remedy—Although Jesus made no sweeping statement of the universality of sin, it is apparent that he looked upon all as sinful, and would be the last one to argue against it.  Even the ordinary people addressed by him in the Sermon on the Mount were described as being evil.  Several passages in the NT make it plain that the only exception to universal guilt is Christ himself.

     We have observed that Paul includes all Jews and Gentiles under the condemnation of sin:  “No human being will be justified in God’s sight by deeds prescribed by the law, for through the law comes the knowledge of sin. . .  All have sinned and fall short of the glory of God” (Romans 3: 20, 23).  As all are sinners, according to Paul’s doctrine, so also the whole human being is infected with its poison.  One of the results of sin is physical death; but to “die in one’s sins” means something far more dreadful than this.  It means being dead to God.  Paul understood that this was his natural condition when he learned the real intent of the law.

     Even though all this is true of sinners, they are never excused of responsibility, no more than they are considered beyond saving.  Ignorance is considered only a partial mitigation of responsibility.  The fact that sinners are continually urged to repent is proof that they are responsible and that there is help for them if they sincerely seek it.  The characteristic NT view is that suffering is a means to spiritual improvement under God’s fatherly hand.  One of the features of the last age is that the corruption of humankind will increase enormously, until at last God intervenes with God’s judgment.

    It appears that the NT takes as dark a view of sin’s nature and effects as the OT does.  It is able to take sin as seriously as it does because it knows the remedy for sin.  God’s effective answer to sin is Christ, i.e. . . “sending God’s own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh; and to deal with sin, God condemned sin in the flesh.”  This fully explains Jesus’ attitude toward the notorious sinners in Jewish society, with whom he intimately conversed and even sat down at table.  Jesus knew that the only way to help a needy sinner was to enter into fellowship with him.  Like John the Baptist, Jesus preached repentance and demonstrated God’s forgiveness. 

     In the letters Christ’s work, and especially the reconciliation which he obtained upon the cross, is set forth as the crowning victory over sin’s power.  The believing sinner is nothing less than a new creature (II Corinthians 5); it is no longer they who live but Christ who lives in them (Galatians 2).  The believers have entered a new aeon:  They have been transferred from darkness’ dominion into the kingdom of God’s beloved Son.      

     All this puts the problem of sin into entirely different light.  The burning question is no longer how to obtain righteousness or how to rid oneself of quilt, but how to live consistently in this new sphere of life.  And if one is in Christ, one has left the domain of sin and belongs entirely to Christ’s domain.  But the purest saints are never entirely free from sin and from sins, as Paul himself experienced.  The real difference lies in the principle of the believers’ life.  True Christians can never give themselves over to sin; yet they will every day need to pray:  “Forgive us our sins.”  Their abiding consciousness is that of their debt to grace.

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SIN, WILDERNESS OF (סין מﬢבﬧ (me deh bawr  sin), desert [plain] of mire)  A wilderness “between Elim and Sinai.”  The location of the Wilderness of Sin has not been established with certainty.  The fact that it is “between Elim and Sinai,” and Rephidim is between the Wilderness of Sin and Sinai, demands that its location be sought in proximity of Sinai,  perhaps at Dophkah on the western fringe of the Sinai Plateau; it is quite possible that the name Sinai is derived from “Sin.”  The wildernesses of Sin and Zin are easily confused.  The Wilderness of Zin is located south of Judah and northeast of Sinai.

SIN OFFERING.  See Sacrifice and Offerings.

SINAI, MOUNT  (הﬧ סיני  (har  sie nie), mountain of mire; the mountain is often signified by “Sinai” alone; הﬧ חﬧב(har khor eb) mount of dryness )  The name of the sacred mountain in the J(Y)ahwist (J) and Priestly (P) sources of Exodus.  Moses as the mediator of the covenant went up into the mountain when he wished to speak with God.  When Yahweh revealed his presence to the people from the mountain he did so with “thunder and lightning, as well as a thick cloud . . . while the whole mountain shook violently” (Exodus 19: 16, 18 (NRSV).  Today most believe Sinai to be Jebel Musa.  

               In the Elohist (E) stratum and Deuteronomic literature another name for the sacred mountain appears (Horeb).  No geographical distinction between this term and “Sinai” is discoverable in the record; the two must be reckoned as synonyms.  Elijah, discouraged and fearful, made a pilgrimage to Horeb for enlightenment.  It is possible that the list of places between Kadesh and Horeb (I Kings 19) are stations on an established pilgrimage route during the early days of the nation’s history.

                 Since the 300s A.D. the sacred mountain of the Exodus traditionally has been located in the mountains at the Sinai Peninsula’s narrowest point. Ammonius, an Egyptian monk of Canopus made a pilgrimage to Mount Sinai around 373.  In 536 Theonas at the Constantinople Council is listed a presbyter and legate of the holy Mount Sinai.  The present Monastery of Saint Catherine’s origin on Jebel Musa’s northwest slope is traced back to 527 A.D., when Emperor Justinian built it where Helena had erected a church 2 centuries earlier.

                 As one approaches the traditional Mount Sinai, one enters a wide valley or small plain, called er-Raha, a little over 3 km long and ½ to 1 km wide.  South of the entrance rises the steep cliffs of Ras es-Safsaf, with a valley on each side.  Jebel Katarin stands 2,600 meters tall and is the southwestern summit of this group.  Jebel Musa at slightly less than 2,300 meters, is northeast of Jebel Katarin.  Between these two mountains is the Monastery of Saint Catherine.  Whether Ras es-Safsaf or Jebel Musa is the sacred mount cannot now be decided.  For traditional Christianity Ras es-Safsaf is Horeb and Jebel Musa is Sinai.

                 During the 1800s various attempts were made to locate Mount Sinai at Jebel Serbal, west of Jebel Musa.  Other scholars during the 1800s and the early 1900s preferred to look for Mount Sinai in northwestern Arabia.  After fleeing Egypt, Moses took up his abode with the Midianites and married into one of the families.  The home territory of Midian is in northwestern Arabia, but Moses’ family, as nomadic smiths could have been camped near the Sinai mines.  A third location for Mount Sinai, and one for which there is considerable evidence, is one of several mountains in the neighborhood of Kadesh-barnea, where northeastern Sinai ends and southern Israel begins.  In 2 old poems Sinai as the scene of God’s revelation is mentioned in association with Seir, which was used in the biblical traditions for some part of the wilderness bordering Kadesh.  The references to the 3-day journey into the wilderness which Moses asks of Pharaoh is more in keeping with Kadesh.  And Meribah may be the same as Rephidim, where water is easier to get from rock than in the Sinai.

                 The objections to Kadesh are these:  the poetic allusions are more like summary statements than they are precise locations; the Mosaic request for a three-day journey can be fitted into none of the proposed locations for Sinai; the water-from-rock tradition is recounted twice, so not too much reliance can be placed on where Exodus seems to place Meribah; none of the stations of the Israelite wandering can be meaningfully understood if their journey went directly either to Kadesh or to Midian; a location elsewhere in Sinai would leave the ancient tradition about Jebel Musa unexplained; and finally, the tradition in Deuteronomy of a an 11-day journey from Kadesh to Horeb is best understood in relation to the southern part of the Sinai Peninsula.

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SINCERITY (ﬨמים (taw meem), perfect, upright; eilikrineia (i lik ree nie ah), integrity)   A quality of personal character or action which is free from falsification, deceit, or wickedness.

                 The idea behind the Greek word eilikrineia may have been that of being found true and pure.  Sincerity is also closely associated with gnesios, genuine.  Sincerity is associated with Truth in the sense of moral uprightness.  A distinctive meaning imparted to the idea of sincerity in the Bible is that of godliness or holiness.  In this light, the “sincere mind” of II Peter 3 may be understood in the sense of a devout and godly mind aroused to true piety.  Those who proclaim Christ with impure motives do not preach sincerely.

SINEW (ﬢגי (geed), nerve)  References in Job 10 and Ezekiel 37 are to the tendons and other connective tissues forming the framework which holds together the flesh with its covering of skin.  In Isaiah 48 the neck as an “iron sinew” recalls the term” stiff-necked” (stubborn).

SINGERS, SINGING, SONG.  See Music.

SINITES (סיני, from the root meaning “mire.”)  A group of Canaanites in Genesis 10 and I Chronicles 1.  They are possibly located in Lebanon’s foothills or the northern Phoenician Sianu; nothing can be said for certain. 

SINNER (חטא (kha taw); anomwn (ah no mon), lawless [men]; amartwloV (ah mar toe los), one who leaves the path of virtue; probata mh econta poimena (pro bah tah  meh  eh kon tah  poy meh nah), sheep without a shepherd)  The Hebrew word khata has the meaning of “godless one,” or one who lives outside the law.  The Greek word anomon has the same meaning as the above Hebrew word.

                 The second Greek word given above has three meanings in the New Testament.  First, it is “heathen or Gentile.”  Second is “‘am ha’ arez,” or “people of the land,” who violated the strict traditions of the Pharisees, either because of their essential but unclean occupation, or because of ignorance.   Jesus was particularly concerned for them and used the Greek phrase mentioned above.  The third meaning was one who is separated from God, whether they are aware or it or not.  When Paul did use this word, he gave it this meaning.

SIPHMOTH (ﬨשפמו, elevated [or conspicuous] place)  Village in southern Judah to which David sent some of the booty taken from the Amalekites for kindnesses shown him; the site is unknown.

SIR (ניﬢא (‘ah dow nie), master, lord)  The translation of the Hebrew word adonai in cases where God is not being referred to.   The New Testament uses kyrios in a similar fashion; it was used to mean a master, or an owner.  In the gospels it is occasionally difficult to know whether the word means “Lord” or “Sir.”

                 See also God, Old Testament View of; Lord (Christ).

SIRAH, CISTERN OF (הﬧ הסﬧבו (bore  ha sir ah), cistern of apostasy)  A location from which Joab treacherously recalled Abner to murder him (II Samuel 3).  The cistern of Sirah is probably to be identified with ‘Ain Sarah, 2.4 km northwest of Hebron.

SIRION (שﬧיון, coat of mail)  According to Deuteronomy 3, the Sidonian name of Mount Hermon.  In this passage Sirion is mentioned with Lebanon.

SISERA (אﬧסיס, battle-array)  Leader of a confederation of Canaanite kings whose army was routed by the flooded Kishon Brook and troops of Barak and Deborah, and who was slain in the tent of Jael.  The name Sisera is non-Semitic.  It is now thought to have been Illyrian (western coast of Turkey).  Sisera’s city, Harosheth is possibly the site of the excavation at Tell ‘Amr some 19 km northwest of Megiddo.  Both Sisera’s name and his city seem to corroborate the suggestion that he was leader of the western sea peoples, originally from Europe.  This may then be the story of the crucial battle, when invading sea peoples in league with native Canaanite defenders took their last stand against the Israelites and their God and were defeated.

                 The biblical story of Sisera appears in two forms: a late prose narrative (Judges 4); and the old poetic Song of Deborah (Judges 5).  The first version seems to combine this account of Sisera with Jabin, “king of Canaan”; Sisera is relegated to being a general in Jabin’s army.  In the Song of Deborah, however, Jabin is not mentioned, while Sisera, evidently a powerful prince, is leader of a confederation of Canaanite kings.

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                 The battle’s circumstances are vividly set forth in both accounts.  The scene was “by the waters of Megiddo”; yet there is no evidence that this stronghold was involved. This suggests the years from 1125-1100 B.C., when Megiddo was not occupied.  According to the prose account, some 10,000 foot soldiers were involved; according to the more authentic Song, six tribes bordering on the plain put 40,000 men into the fray; the course of the battle is not clear.  Deborah’s Song speaks only of Taanach, the waters of Megiddo, and the Kishon.  Because of a sudden, late-winter downpour the Kishon drowned hundreds of charioteers; Sisera fled.

                 Because of some differences between the poetic and the prose accounts of Sisera’s fate, some scholars think the prose narrative confused the authentic Song portrayal with a story called “wife of Heber the Kenite.”  In the prose, fleeing Sisera sought and received asylum, and so fell into exhausted sleep, but then was treacherously murdered.  In the Song, fugitive Sisera paused at a tent only for a drink of water.  He buried his head in the large bowl, and the woman struck the shattering blow with the mallet.  Either way, she violated the law of hospitality.  Sisera’s queen mother and her attendant princesses console themselves that their victorious men are only delayed by gathering spoils.  Religiously, Sisera’s defeat was the tale of holy war, in which Canaanite and foreign paganism were defeated by Barak’s human troops together with the Lord’s judgment.  Sisera’s downfall was the end of the last full-scale native Canaanite uprising against the Israelites.

SISMAI (ססמי)  A post-exilic name in a genealogy tracing the descent of Elishama.

SISTRUM.  See Musical Instruments.

SITHRI (סﬨﬧי, protection of the Lord)  Uzziel’s son, and cousin of Moses, listed in the genealogy of Levi (Ex. 6)

SITNAH (שﬨנה hostility, accusation)  A well dug by the servants of Isaac near Gerar.  It was given this name because the herdsmen of Abimelech, king of Gerar, disputed with them about it (Genesis 26).

SIVAN (סיון, bright, splendid)  The third month of the Hebrew calendar.

SIX HUNDRED AND SIXTY-SIX (exakosioi exhkonta ex (eks ah koe see oy  eks eh kone ta  eks); Revelation 13 has 616 as the “number of the beast.”)   

     The numerous attempts to solve the enigma presented by John’s use of this number may be summarized as follows.  First, theories assuming that the “number of the beast” represents a name to be discovered through ingenuity.  Since Irenaeus’ day students have employed the known numerical values of both Hebrew and Greek letters in order to discover a name whose numerical value will equal the indicated sum. 

     Such students assume the John has made use of the system known to the rabbis as Gemartria (Hebrew for geometry).  By assuming “666” as the number, and assigning numerical values to Greek letters, the words produced include “Latin” and “Neron Caesar.”  Assuming “616” as the number, the words include: “Caesar is God”; and Gaius Caesar.  Some have interpreted John’s statement that “the number of the beast . . . is a case of the word meaning a certain beast and the word meaning a certain man have the same numerical value.

     Second, theories asserting the general or indeterminate nature of the number’s symbolism.  A “human number” means one humanly intelligible.  Using the system known as triangulation, “666” equals the sum of all numbers from 1 to 36, and “36” in turn is the sum of all those from 1 to 8. Both 8 and 666 represent anyone opposed to and less perfect than Jesus, whose name in Greek adds up to “888.”

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